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IWWAGE-Institute for What Works to Advance Gender Equality

Bi-monthly seminar nov-2024

IWWAGE Bi-monthly Seminar: Beneath the Headline Numbers: Employment Trends and Returns to Work in the Indian Labour Market

 

Dr. Mrinalini Jha, Assistant Professor, Jindal School of Government and Public Policy joined us for the seminar series on Thursday, the 28th of November, 2024 to discuss Employment Trends and Returns to Work in an Indian Labour Market. Dr Jha’s expertise lies in inequality, poverty and structural transformation in the Indian economy. The lecture– a product of her ongoing work–seeks to build a narrative of the worrisome state of the Indian economy, particularly in the labour market.

The discussion began with a lucid overview of the trends in workforce participation and employment in India.Dr. Jha introduced three phases concerning employment and population:

  • 1993-94 to 2004-05-Phase 1-rise in employment keeping pace with increasing population which results in a roughly constant Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR) at 65%.
  • 2004-05 to 2017-18-Phase 2-stagnation in absolute employment numbers even as the working-age population continues to grow with a drop in the LFPR to 52% in 2017-18 from 66% in 2004-05.
  • 2017-18 onwards-Phase 3-a faster rise in employment levels as compared to the rise in the working-age population with an increase in the LFPR to 58% in 2021-22 from 52% in 2017-18.

However, Dr. Jha implores us to look beyond these headlines to focus on the quality of jobs, and how India is faring when it comes to ensuring the availability of “good jobs”. While the number of jobs created has increased, the quality of jobs has not improved. The proportion of self-employed jobs has increased, while the proportion of salaried jobs has decreased.The earnings of self-employed, casual workers, and salaried workers have not seen any positive rise either.The share of women in unpaid work has also increased. To surmise, the current trends indicate a crisis in the economy.

 

Dr. Jha argued that the increase in household income is not solely due to an increase in workforce participation rate (WPR), but also due to more people within a household working. She supplemented her arguments with data that indicate that while the proportion of household members working has increased, the income per worker has decreased. The increase in household income is attributable to more people, particularly women, stepping out to work at lower earning jobs. She  shared her insight on the issue of women entering the labour force primarily as unpaid helpers, and the shrinking proportion of women’s work. Dr. Jha sought  to empirically establish that it is not a choice women are making, rather an indication of economic distress.

 

She concluded with the reiteration that unemployment is not the best measure to evaluate the labour market’s health.Although, there has been a  steady rise in those employed as a percentage of the working-age population since 2017-18, quality as gauged from the nature of employment and earnings is worsening over time.Households are coping with economic distress by working more at lower wages to maintain total household earnings. Women joining the labour force is thus an account of this distress.This is also evident from the nature of employment women are engaged in.Productivity, as measured by earnings, is bound to increase as more members in the household work  Dr. Jha’s illuminating presentation opened the floor to many insightful comments and probing questions from the audience.

Exploring Strategies, Processes, and Utility of the Vulnerability Reduction Fund (VRF) During COVID-19

The Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM) is a Government of India scheme aimed at reducing poverty by empowering women through Self-Help Groups (SHGs), Village Organisations (VOs), and Cluster-Level Federations (CLFs). These platforms provide access to rights, financial services, and livelihood opportunities, promoting collective action and leadership among women.

To address vulnerability, the Vulnerability Reduction Fund (VRF) was introduced in 2016 as part of DAY-NRLM’s social inclusion strategy. The VRF focuses on reducing risk and supporting vulnerable communities, especially during crises like the COVID-19 pandemic.

In 2022, IWWAGE conducted a study in Jharkhand, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, and Tripura to assess the implementation and impact of the VRF during COVID-19. The research involved interviews with beneficiaries and officials and focused on the allocation, disbursement, and effectiveness of the fund in reaching vulnerable households. The study highlights the VRF’s role in building resilience and aiding marginalised communities.

Climate Change and the Future of Women’s Work

Climate change is a pressing global challenge that exacerbates existing inequalities, disproportionately affecting women, girls, and marginalised communities. Due to persistent gender inequalities, women face unique challenges in adapting to climate-induced disasters, often lacking access to resources, financial services, and decision-making platforms needed to rebuild livelihoods. As a result, they are often slower to recover compared to men.

International frameworks, such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Lima Work Program on Gender, stress the importance of integrating gender perspectives into climate policies. However, there is a lack of sex-disaggregated data to fully understand the impact of climate change on women’s workforce participation. This highlights the urgent need for research on how climate change affects women’s livelihoods and the importance of advocating for policies that protect their participation in existing sectors while empowering them to enter emerging industries.

By addressing these gendered impacts, we can create more equitable and sustainable solutions to climate change, ensuring that women play a key role in building climate-resilient communities.

Trend In Female Labour Force Participation In India

Despite significant economic growth since the 1990s, India’s female labour force participation rate (FLFPR) remains low at 28.2%, lagging behind countries like Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka. Globally, FLFPR is lower than men’s, with regions like Sub-Saharan Africa leading at 60%, while South Asia trails at 28.1%. Research points to various supply-side factors contributing to India’s low FLFPR, including rising household incomes, educational attainment, reproductive roles, childcare responsibilities, cultural norms, and underreporting of women’s labour. This factsheet explores these barriers and their impact on women’s workforce participation in India.

National Gender Campaign 2.0 Assessment Report – Hindi

ग्रामीण विकास मंत्रालय (MoRD) द्वारा 2022 में शुरू किया गया ‘नयी चेतना – पहल बदलाव की’ राष्ट्रीय ग्रामीण आजीविका मिशन (DAY-NRLM) के अंतर्गत एक राष्ट्रीय लैंगिक अभियान है। इस अभियान का उद्देश्य महिलाओं और लड़कियों के विभिन्न जीवन चरणों में होने वाली लैंगिक हिंसा (GBV) के बारे में जागरूकता बढ़ाना, रिपोर्टिंग को बढ़ावा देना, और सुरक्षित समाधान तंत्र के लिए हितधारकों के बीच सहयोग को सशक्त करना है। अभियान का पहला संस्करण 25 नवंबर 2022 को समानता और लैंगिक हिंसा को समाप्त करने की थीम के साथ शुरू किया गया था।

इसकी प्रारंभिक सफलता को आगे बढ़ाते हुए, अभियान का दूसरा संस्करण 25 नवंबर 2023 को शुरू किया गया। इस चरण का उद्देश्य विभिन्न प्रकार की हिंसा के बारे में जागरूकता को और अधिक गहरा करना और हितधारकों के साथ मिलकर सुरक्षित समाधान तंत्र को मजबूत करना था। इस संस्करण में राज्य ग्रामीण आजीविका मिशन (SRLMs), DAY-NRLM समुदाय संस्थाओं, पंचायत राज संस्थानों (PRIs), और 14 मंत्रालयों सहित विभिन्न हितधारकों की सहभागिता सुनिश्चित की गई।

IWWAGE ने क्रीया विश्वविद्यालय के LEAD के साथ मिलकर नयी चेतना 2.0 अभियान का व्यापक गुणात्मक और मात्रात्मक मूल्यांकन किया। इस अध्ययन का उद्देश्य अभियान की पहुंच, प्रासंगिकता और प्रभावशीलता का आकलन करना था, विशेष रूप से GBV के बारे में जागरूकता बढ़ाने, रिपोर्टिंग तंत्र को मजबूत करने और संस्थागत समर्थन को सुधारने के संदर्भ में।

इस मूल्यांकन में गुणात्मक साक्षात्कार और दस राज्यों में समूह चर्चाओं के साथ-साथ एक ऑनलाइन प्लेटफार्म के माध्यम से मात्रात्मक डेटा संग्रहण का मिश्रित तरीका अपनाया गया। प्रमुख निष्कर्षों में महिलाओं के स्वयं सहायता समूह (SHGs) की ताकत अभियान के प्रभाव का केंद्र बिंदु साबित हुई। हालांकि, भविष्य के संस्करणों में पुरुषों और किशोरों की सक्रिय भागीदारी सुनिश्चित करना महत्वपूर्ण है ताकि व्यापक सामाजिक परिवर्तन हो सके। इसके अतिरिक्त, जमीनी स्तर पर लैंगिक भेदभाव पर चर्चा करने के लिए PRI अधिकारियों की सक्रिय भूमिका को एक सफल रणनीति के रूप में देखा गया।

मूल्यांकन में यह भी बताया गया कि GBV की रिपोर्टिंग में सुधार के लिए विभिन्न विभागों के बीच बेहतर समन्वय आवश्यक है। इसके अलावा, बजट आवंटन को बढ़ाने, स्थानीय भाषाओं में प्रशिक्षण सामग्री की उपलब्धता, और मीडिया प्लेटफार्मों का अधिक उपयोग करने की सिफारिश की गई, ताकि अभियान की पहुंच और भागीदारी को और बढ़ाया जा सके।

National Gender Campaign 2.0 Assessment Report – English

Launched by the Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD) in 2022, ‘Nayi Chetna – Pahal Badlaav Ki’ is a national gender campaign under the Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM). The campaign aims to raise awareness about Gender-Based Violence (GBV) across various life stages of women and girls, promote reporting, and enhance collaboration among stakeholders for safe redress mechanisms. The first edition of the campaign was introduced on November 25, 2022, with the theme of equity and ending GBV.

Building on its inaugural success, the second edition was launched on November 25, 2023. This phase focused on deepening awareness of the different forms of violence and strengthening access to safe redress mechanisms through convergence with stakeholders, including State Rural Livelihood Missions (SRLMs), DAY-NRLM community institutions, Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), and 14 Line Ministries.

IWWAGE, in collaboration with LEAD at Krea University, conducted a comprehensive qualitative and quantitative assessment of the Nayi Chetna 2.0 campaign. The study aimed to evaluate the campaign’s reach, relevance, and effectiveness, particularly in raising awareness of GBV, enhancing reporting mechanisms, and improving institutional support.

The assessment employed a mixed-methods approach, incorporating qualitative interviews and focus group discussions across ten states, alongside quantitative data collection through an online platform. Key findings revealed the strength of women’s Self-Help Groups (SHGs) as central to the campaign’s impact. However, engaging men and adolescents in future iterations is crucial for broader societal change. Additionally, active involvement of PRI functionaries in grassroots dialogues on gender discrimination emerged as a successful strategy.

The assessment also highlighted the importance of fostering cross-departmental convergence to improve GBV reporting, and recommended further budget allocations, access to localised training materials, and greater use of media platforms to amplify the campaign’s reach and engagement.

Gender-Based Occupational Segregation: A Barrier for Women’s Economic Empowerment

Gender-based occupational segregation refers to a situation when female and male workers are distributed differently across various occupations in a labour market, resulting in clustering of women or men around certain occupations [1]. Occupational segregation can be distinguished into two forms – horizontal and vertical. While horizontal segregation is measured by considering the differences in distribution of men and women across occupations, vertical segregation considers the distribution of men and women across hierarchies within the same occupation. Gender-based occupational segregation often creates labour market rigidities and economic inefficiencies, which leads to wastage of human capital. This also makes labour markets less flexible towards adjusting to structural changes happening nationally and globally. More specifically, it creates additional barriers for women to join the workforce by limiting the occupational choices available for them. As a result, in a highly segregated labour market, the supply of women tends to be higher for occupations where concentration of women is already high, which negatively impacts their bargaining power. A negative effect of occupational segregation is the creation of gender wage-gaps negatively biassed towards women, especially in developing countries [2]. A study exploring the interlinkages between gender-based segregation and wage differentials in India found that while a relatively large part of the rural wage gap was due to differences in educational attainment between males and females, a considerable part of the urban wage gap was explained by differences in occupational profiles across gender. At the same time, overall discrimination against women was also found to contribute to wage differences [3]. It can also create a mismatch between women’s education attainment and the type of occupation they engage in [4].

 

Contributing Factors

To a large extent, gender-based occupational segregation reflects the gendered division of labour in societies. Gendered norms are so deep-rooted in people’s minds that they often take up occupations that may align with specific roles expected by society from a particular gender. Women’s occupations are often a mirror of the common stereotypes associated with women and their supposed abilities- caring nature, greater housework skills etc. Without adequate support for care work from the State or the market, women often end up clustering around occupations that can provide them enough flexibility to manage care responsibilities at home. Again, boys tend to take into consideration future expected financial returns more than girls while choosing their educational path and occupations [3]. Moreover, gendered perceptions of employers can also lead to discriminatory hiring practices. Job roles offered to women tend to have either lower prospects of growth or pay less, as compared to those offered to men. Employers often perceive that women cannot give longer hours to jobs or cannot take up highly demanding managerial roles due to their primary responsibility as caregivers.

 

Another factor contributing to occupational segregation is gendered human capital investment by households, not only in terms of differences in levels of education attainment, but also choices of fields of education across gender. For instance, findings from All India Higher Education Survey (AIHES), 2021-22 [5] revealed that the proportion of females enrolled in technology and engineering related courses was far less than that of males. Similarly, the share of females enrolled in sociology or humanities courses, has been considerably higher than that of males. Therefore, the employability of women for jobs that require technical skills has been relatively low, which eventually contributes to segregation. Again, highly informal work conditions and lack of social security associated with jobs in India’s highly informal labour market, also hinder women’s participation in certain occupations or sectors. For instance, some manufacturing and construction sector occupations demand extensive physical labour without adequate safety standards, social protection measures, or decent work conditions in terms of work hours, basic facilities etc. Moreover, certain sectors are traditionally male-dominated, and women often find it difficult to adjust to workplace practices that may not always be gender-sensitive.

 

 

Extent of segregation in India

To capture the level of occupational segregation, a number of measurement indices can be used. While there is a lack of consensus regarding which index reflects occupational segregation better, the Duncan Dissimilarity Index [6], is one of the most widely used measures. It is interpreted as the proportion of women (or men) workers who would have to shift occupations for the occupational distribution of men and women to be the same. For the indices to be comparable over time, the occupational classifications captured in labour surveys have to be identical. India’s latest labour survey (Periodic Labour Force Survey or PLFS, 2022-23) used an updated occupational classification (National Classification of Occupation-2015 or NCO-2015), as compared to the codes used in earlier rounds between 2011-12 and 2021-22. These surveys used occupational codes as defined by NCO-2004. Even though the broad occupations at 1-digit level were comparable, the detailed occupational categories at 3-digit level captured by NCO-2004 and NCO-2015, were not exactly comparable. Again, there was great volatility in the occupational pattern of workers during 2020-21 and 2021-22 as the economy was severely hit by COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, to understand the long-term trend in segregation during the pre-COVID decade, the surveys conducted in 2011-12 and 2019-20, were explored.

Figure 1 presents the distribution of male and female workers across broad occupations during 2019-20. Two occupations with relatively higher concentration of female workers were skilled agricultural & fishery workers, and agricultural labourers, which together constituted 58% of total female workforce in India, compared to 36% of total male workforce. Similarly, school teachers and personal services & care workers had relatively higher concentrations of female workers, although this category constituted a much smaller share of the overall workforce. Personal services & care workers include waiters in restaurants, bartenders, cooks, house-keepers, hair-dressers, beauticians, barbers, child care workers, institution-based and home-based care workers etc. Therefore, it is evident that similar to unpaid care work within the households, women’s engagement in paid care services has also been much higher than men, thereby contributing to occupational segregation.

 

Figure 1: % Distribution of Male and Female Workers (15 to 59 Years) across Broad Occupations: All India, 2019-20

 

Considering workers in the 15 to 59 years age-group, India’s overall gender-based occupational segregation in 2019-20 was 35.3%, as per Duncan Dissimilarity Index. The segregation was relatively higher in urban areas (41.7%) as compared to that in rural India (30.6%). Between 2011-12 and 2019-20, occupational segregation had risen from 31.6% to 35.3%, primarily due to increased segregation in rural areas, while that in urban areas had slightly decreased. Again, there was a steep rise in segregation among casual labourers (24.1% to 40.8%), while that among the regular-salaried (28% to 27%) or the self-employed (49% to 47%) did not change much.

 

Policy Approach towards Occupational Segregation

An integrated labour market with minimum gender-based segregation, can undoubtedly contribute to overall gender equality in a country. Two key concerns for women in a segregated labour market are limited access to work opportunities and lower average earnings compared to men. However,depending on the economic structure of a nation and formalisation of the labour market, desegregation and higher work participation of women, may not always be positively associated. Similarly, the contribution of segregation in accentuating gender wage gap, depends on a country’s wage structure characterised by setting of minimum wages, transparency of wage machinery, and coordination across firms and industries. The extent to which occupational segregation is problematic for women, depends largely on whether women are disadvantaged because of segregation in terms of poor working conditions, and lower wages, reflecting gendered hierarchies of power and discrimination [7]. Unfortunately, this is the case for many developing countries including India. Therefore, there should be a careful consideration regarding whether there should be equal policy focus on reducing gender-based occupational segregation, closing gender wage gap, and increasing female employment, or there should be trade-offs among them. The evidence that occupational segregation can boost female employment at certain stages of development, complicates such policy choices. Further, as compared to other forms of gender inequality, any reduction in occupational segregation takes much longer to achieve. This is reflected in a more even distribution of men and women across sectors in many developing countries as more women join the workforce, but into a limited number of occupations within these  sectors [8].

 

Considering India’s current situation where women’s work participation is much lower than that of men, it might be more effective to focus on policy interventions at facilitating access to decent work conditions for women, as well to provide equal opportunities for growth across all sectors and occupations that women participate in. Immediate emphasis should be to reduce vertical segregation across occupational hierarchies, which can contribute immensely in reducing gender wage gaps. At the same time, there should be a longer-term effort to reduce horizontal segregation so that women can explore a wider range of occupations. However, to achieve this, development of the care sector through public and private sector engagement, in order to make care services affordable and accessible across all economic strata, is crucial. In parallel, there should be equal focus on awareness generation through multiple channels to reduce and eliminate some of the traditional gendered norms that have impeded women’s overall empowerment and agency-building.

This blog has been authored by Mridusmita Bordoloi, Economist, IWWAGE

National Conclave on Gender Mainstreaming

National Conclave on Gender Mainstreaming

The Gender Snapshot Report by the United Nations (2023) highlights slow progress towards Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for 2030. It projects that by 2030, over 340 million women and girls may live in extreme poverty, and close to one in four will face food insecurity. Urging immediate action, the report calls for integrated approaches, greater collaboration, sustained funding, and policy reforms to achieve gender equality and empowerment.

The G20 declaration reinforces this urgency with a focus on reducing gender gaps in labour force participation, promoting equal access to education, and increasing women’s participation in STEM and digital fields. It also emphasizes promoting access to social protection, eliminating gender-based violence, and ensuring women’s inclusion in the formal financial system.

Background

In recent years, the Gender Programme under Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Rural Livelihood Mission has made significant strides, moving from policy integration to large-scale implementation. Notable achievements include the establishment of Gender Resource Centres across 15 states, and estabilishment of 44,528 Gender Point Persons collectives, 33,736 and 1,461 Block level Gender Forums respectively as platforms for dialogue and action.

The national campaign ‘Nayi Chetna,’ launched in 2022, has seen widespread engagement, fostering inter-ministerial convergence and community action to combat gender-based violence. The campaign, actively carried out in 32 states has seen close to 6 crore participation in activities over the two years advocating the need to speak up and take action against all forms of gender-based violence. Four editions of the ‘Gender Samvaad’ have further amplified advocacy efforts, drawing participation from community resource persons, practitioners, and policymakers.

 

Overview and objective

As the programme enters its second phase, the conclave will draw insights from practitioners, policy makers, experts and cluster level federations and explore:

  1. Building Gender Responsive Community Institutions through stronger institutional mechanisms.
  2. Enhancing inter-ministerial convergence to address gender issues collaboratively.
  3. Integrating gender perspectives into NRLM’s thematic verticals to shift gender norms at the household level.
  4. Expanding stakeholder engagement through alliances and advocacy, with a focus on engaging men and youth.

Event Proceedings of The National Conclave on Gender Mainstreaming

Our Publications

Handbook for Institutional Mechanisms for Addressing Gender Issues

Gender Resource Centre: An Advisory

An Assessment of the National Gender Campaign for DAY-NRLM

Nayi Chetna- Coffee Table Book Year One Snapshot

SWAYAM Process Evaluation

Process Documentation Report

An Assessment of the Compiled Case Stories

Gender Modules
Workshop on Capturing Women’s Work (CWW) held at India Habitat Centre, New Delhi on July 24, 2024

Workshop on Capturing Women’s Work (CWW) held at India Habitat Centre,
New Delhi on July 24, 2024

 

The workshop on Capturing Women’s Work (CWW) took place on July 24, 2024, at the Indian Habitat Centre, New Delhi. Hosted by IWWAGE, the event aimed to address the complexities and challenges in accurately measuring women’s work.

 

The inaugural session featured key insights from Radha Chellappa, Executive Director, IWWAGE, Neeta Goel, Country Lead – Measurement, Learning and Evaluation, Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation Foundation and Sona Mitra, Director – Policy and Research, IWWAGE focusing on findings from the IWWAGE study.

 

Led by Sona Mitra, the IWWAGE research team showcased their findings from the study titled ‘Capturing Women’s Work to Measure Better’ which aimed at developing better mechanisms for data collection by employing innovative probing techniques and sampling frames tailored to capture the nuances of women’s work. Additionally, the session emphasized on the importance of creating a robust framework for conducting women-specific surveys that could be aligned with national Labour Force Surveys (LFS). This would help in obtaining more comprehensive estimates of women’s labor force participation. The session concluded with a series of participant inquiries. The presentation of time use findings sparked discussions about how women’s time allocation evolves with age, specifically when unpaid domestic work becomes a daily routine, and the factors contributing to the transition from ‘girl’ to ‘woman’.

The second half of the presentation focused on findings around identifying and addressing the significant perception bias that often underestimates women’s economic contributions (in cases where the respondent is not the woman herself) were presented. Through these efforts, the sessions aimed to advance methodologies that more accurately reflect women’s roles in the economy.

Findings from the CWW study revealed notable gaps between self-reported data and societal perceptions, highlighting the need to include unpaid domestic work in workforce measurements for greater accuracy.

 

Discussions also covered the economic valuation of unpaid work, the impact of household characteristics on perceptions, and the significance of detailed recovery questions. Key points included discrepancies between the PLFS 2022-2023 and CWW survey estimates of female labor force participation rates, as well as concerns about the lack of a 180-day principal activity benchmark and the survey’s ability to accurately capture women’s work, particularly in Jharkhand.

 

 

The workshop ended with a panel discussion, moderated by Yamini Atmavilas, bringing together experts like Jeemol Unni, Madhura Swaminathan, Rosa Abraham, Neetha N, and PC Mohanan. They discussed innovations in measurement methods and the limitations of current survey instruments. Emphasis was placed on the need for regular Time Use Surveys (TUS) and refining survey tools to capture the dynamic nature of women’s work, including unpaid care and domestic activities. The panel concluded that improving measurement accuracy and recognizing the economic value of women’s work are essential for addressing historical underreporting and better informing policy decisions.

Related Resources
CWW Summary of Findings
CWW Report

Improving Women’s Employment Possibilities: A Sectoral Analysis

This research paper explores the intersection of sectoral growth and gendered employment in India, analysing how economic changes impact women’s participation in the workforce. Using time-series data from CPHS, CMIE CAPEX, PLFS, and NAS, the study forecasts employment trends across key sectors from 2024 to 2027, with a particular lens on sectors employing large numbers of women. It highlights an overall projected decline in women’s employment, especially in agriculture, education, ICT, and several manufacturing industries due to mechanisation and automation. However, it also identifies potential growth in sectors such as wholesale and retail trade, and selected manufacturing sub-sectors like footwear and detergents, driven by women’s increasing entrepreneurial presence in e-commerce. The paper calls for urgent upskilling and targeted investments in sectors with high potential to absorb women workers.