This factsheet highlights Tamil Nadu’s strong female labor force participation, surpassing the national average, supported by key initiatives like Pudhumai Penn and the Thozhi hostel programme. It explores how these schemes have boosted women’s employment in both urban manufacturing and rural agriculture, drawing insights from the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS).
Publications
Publications
Category
Year
Factsheet
Trends in Female Labour and Workforce Participation – Tamil Nadu
- March , 2025
- Aneek Choudhary, Bidisha Mondal
This factsheet highlights Tamil Nadu’s strong female labor force participation, surpassing the national average, supported by key initiatives like Pudhumai Penn and the Thozhi hostel programme. It explores how these schemes have boosted women’s employment in both urban manufacturing and rural agriculture, drawing insights from the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS).
This factsheet highlights Tamil Nadu’s strong female labor force participation, surpassing the national average, supported by key initiatives like Pudhumai Penn and the Thozhi hostel programme. It explores how these schemes have boosted women’s employment in both urban manufacturing and rural agriculture, drawing insights from the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS).
Brief
Understanding the Needs of Self-Employed Women in India
- January , 2025
- Prakriti Sharma, Vidhi
Insights from the IWWAGE and Institute for Human Development’s panel at the 65th ISLE Conference
Women’s entrepreneurship faces distinct gendered challenges, as unpaid work and domestic responsibilities significantly constrain their ability to scale up and expand their economic activities. This also tends to contribute to a persistent gender gap in the quality and outcomes of work, as most women are relegated to the periphery of entrepreneurship, earning little to no income from their contributions to household enterprises. Hence, since most of these activities are carried out from home and intertwined with household responsibilities, they must be understood not only in terms of economic contribution but within the broader framework of social reproduction.
Women’s entrepreneurship faces distinct gendered challenges, as unpaid work and domestic responsibilities significantly constrain their ability to scale up and expand their economic activities. This also tends to contribute to a persistent gender gap in the quality and outcomes of work, as most women are relegated to the periphery of entrepreneurship, earning little to no income from their contributions to household enterprises. Hence, since most of these activities are carried out from home and intertwined with household responsibilities, they must be understood not only in terms of economic contribution but within the broader framework of social reproduction.
Report
Implementation research study to understand DAY-NRLM’s institutional mechanisms and interventions to address Gender Based Violence
- January , 2025
- Kaliat Ammu Sanyal
The Strengthening Women’s Institutions for Agency and Empowerment (SWAYAM) programme is being piloted in Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha, in partnership with IWWAGE and DAY-NRLM. While DAY-NRLM is the largest government initiative working with rural women in India, the need remains to shift from solely engaging with women to adopting a gender equality and rights-based approach. This shift, through gender mainstreaming, aims to embed gender sensitivity across frameworks, institutions, and processes to achieve sustainable social, economic, and political goals. Under SWAYAM, gender-responsive training has been provided to cadres and institutions, focusing on gender issues, legal rights, and entitlements. A key feature of the programme is the establishment of Gender Justice Centres (GRCs) at the block level, aimed at improving women’s access to rights and services, and addressing grievances related to violence. IWWAGE, an initiative of LEAD at Krea University, conducted a qualitative study on the SWAYAM programme in these pilot states, focusing on its role in addressing Violence Against Women (VAW). The study aimed to understand women’s experiences with accessing services at GRCs and to explore how social norms and gender training impacted the community’s response to violence. The research included interviews with 102 participants across four states, involving SHG women trained and untrained in gender, women who sought support from GRCs, Gender Champions, and men related to SHG members. The study provides insights into the effectiveness of the SWAYAM programme in transforming attitudes towards violence and fostering community intervention in VAW cases.
The Strengthening Women’s Institutions for Agency and Empowerment (SWAYAM) programme is being piloted in Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha, in partnership with IWWAGE and DAY-NRLM. While DAY-NRLM is the largest government initiative working with rural women in India, the need remains to shift from solely engaging with women to adopting a gender equality and rights-based approach. This shift, through gender mainstreaming, aims to embed gender sensitivity across frameworks, institutions, and processes to achieve sustainable social, economic, and political goals. Under SWAYAM, gender-responsive training has been provided to cadres and institutions, focusing on gender issues, legal rights, and entitlements. A key feature of the programme is the establishment of Gender Justice Centres (GRCs) at the block level, aimed at improving women’s access to rights and services, and addressing grievances related to violence. IWWAGE, an initiative of LEAD at Krea University, conducted a qualitative study on the SWAYAM programme in these pilot states, focusing on its role in addressing Violence Against Women (VAW). The study aimed to understand women’s experiences with accessing services at GRCs and to explore how social norms and gender training impacted the community’s response to violence. The research included interviews with 102 participants across four states, involving SHG women trained and untrained in gender, women who sought support from GRCs, Gender Champions, and men related to SHG members. The study provides insights into the effectiveness of the SWAYAM programme in transforming attitudes towards violence and fostering community intervention in VAW cases.
Newsletter (Gender In Focus)
Gender Focus- Hindi
- January , 2025
- IWWAGE
This issue offers a preview of IWWAGE’s work during the pandemic—field voices from discussions with civil society partners in four states, reflections on how physical distancing may affect SHG functioning, and analysis on how recovery strategies must account for women’s employment and labour participation. It also captures highlights from webinars, and introduces a new series of policy notes with timely recommendations to support a more resilient and gender-responsive post-COVID world.
This issue offers a preview of IWWAGE’s work during the pandemic—field voices from discussions with civil society partners in four states, reflections on how physical distancing may affect SHG functioning, and analysis on how recovery strategies must account for women’s employment and labour participation. It also captures highlights from webinars, and introduces a new series of policy notes with timely recommendations to support a more resilient and gender-responsive post-COVID world.
Report
Capturing Women’s Work to Measure Better
- September , 2024
- Sona Mitra | Prakriti Sharma | Aneek Choudhary
Women’s work is often underestimated in labour force surveys due to its complex nature, which includes economic, non-economic, and unpaid work such as domestic tasks and caregiving. Additionally, biases in respondents and enumerators, along with survey designs lacking gender sensitivity, contribute to data gaps and the undercounting of women’s contributions, keeping them invisible in statistics and policy discussions. Research highlights how oversimplified methodologies in mainstream surveys lead to the misclassification of economically active women as inactive. This study aims to address these gaps by testing innovative survey techniques that provide more accurate estimates of women’s participation in the workforce. It also examines perception bias in proxy-reporting. The study was conducted in Karnataka and Jharkhand, surveying 4,000 women and 800 men. Findings show that these innovations were effective in capturing more women in employment compared to conventional surveys, offering deeper insights into their time-use patterns and highlighting the impact of perception bias in proxy reporting.
Women’s work is often underestimated in labour force surveys due to its complex nature, which includes economic, non-economic, and unpaid work such as domestic tasks and caregiving. Additionally, biases in respondents and enumerators, along with survey designs lacking gender sensitivity, contribute to data gaps and the undercounting of women’s contributions, keeping them invisible in statistics and policy discussions. Research highlights how oversimplified methodologies in mainstream surveys lead to the misclassification of economically active women as inactive. This study aims to address these gaps by testing innovative survey techniques that provide more accurate estimates of women’s participation in the workforce. It also examines perception bias in proxy-reporting. The study was conducted in Karnataka and Jharkhand, surveying 4,000 women and 800 men. Findings show that these innovations were effective in capturing more women in employment compared to conventional surveys, offering deeper insights into their time-use patterns and highlighting the impact of perception bias in proxy reporting.
Learning note
Trend In Female Labour Force Participation In India
- December , 2024
- Aneek Choudhary , Bidisha Mondal
Despite significant economic growth since the 1990s, India’s female labour force participation rate (FLFPR) remains low at 28.2%, lagging behind countries like Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka.This factsheet explores these barriers and their impact on women’s workforce participation in India.
Despite significant economic growth since the 1990s, India’s female labour force participation rate (FLFPR) remains low at 28.2%, lagging behind countries like Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka.This factsheet explores these barriers and their impact on women’s workforce participation in India.
Report
Exploring Strategies, Processes, and Utility of the Vulnerability Reduction Fund (VRF) During COVID-19
- December , 2024
- Surabhi Awasthi | Sharmishtha Nanda | Arpita Paul
The Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM) is a Government of India scheme aimed at reducing poverty by empowering women through Self-Help Groups (SHGs), Village Organisations (VOs), and Cluster-Level Federations (CLFs). These platforms provide access to rights, financial services, and livelihood opportunities, promoting collective action and leadership among women. To address vulnerability, the Vulnerability Reduction Fund (VRF) was introduced in 2016 as part of DAY-NRLM’s social inclusion strategy. The VRF focuses on reducing risk and supporting vulnerable communities, especially during crises like the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2022, IWWAGE conducted a study in Jharkhand, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, and Tripura to assess the implementation and impact of the VRF during COVID-19. The research involved interviews with beneficiaries and officials and focused on the allocation, disbursement, and effectiveness of the fund in reaching vulnerable households. The study highlights the VRF’s role in building resilience and aiding marginalised communities.
The Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM) is a Government of India scheme aimed at reducing poverty by empowering women through Self-Help Groups (SHGs), Village Organisations (VOs), and Cluster-Level Federations (CLFs). These platforms provide access to rights, financial services, and livelihood opportunities, promoting collective action and leadership among women. To address vulnerability, the Vulnerability Reduction Fund (VRF) was introduced in 2016 as part of DAY-NRLM’s social inclusion strategy. The VRF focuses on reducing risk and supporting vulnerable communities, especially during crises like the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2022, IWWAGE conducted a study in Jharkhand, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, and Tripura to assess the implementation and impact of the VRF during COVID-19. The research involved interviews with beneficiaries and officials and focused on the allocation, disbursement, and effectiveness of the fund in reaching vulnerable households. The study highlights the VRF’s role in building resilience and aiding marginalised communities.
Learning note
Climate Change and the Future of Women’s Work
- December , 2024
- Sayak Sinha | Divya Singh | Devika Oberai
Climate change is a pressing global challenge that exacerbates existing inequalities, disproportionately affecting women, girls, and marginalised communities. Due to persistent gender inequalities, women face unique challenges in adapting to climate-induced disasters, often lacking access to resources, financial services, and decision-making platforms needed to rebuild livelihoods. As a result, they are often slower to recover compared to men. International frameworks, such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Lima Work Program on Gender, stress the importance of integrating gender perspectives into climate policies. However, there is a lack of sex-disaggregated data to fully understand the impact of climate change on women’s workforce participation. This highlights the urgent need for research on how climate change affects women’s livelihoods and the importance of advocating for policies that protect their participation in existing sectors while empowering them to enter emerging industries. By addressing these gendered impacts, we can create more equitable and sustainable solutions to climate change, ensuring that women play a key role in building climate-resilient communities.
Climate change is a pressing global challenge that exacerbates existing inequalities, disproportionately affecting women, girls, and marginalised communities. Due to persistent gender inequalities, women face unique challenges in adapting to climate-induced disasters, often lacking access to resources, financial services, and decision-making platforms needed to rebuild livelihoods. As a result, they are often slower to recover compared to men. International frameworks, such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Lima Work Program on Gender, stress the importance of integrating gender perspectives into climate policies. However, there is a lack of sex-disaggregated data to fully understand the impact of climate change on women’s workforce participation. This highlights the urgent need for research on how climate change affects women’s livelihoods and the importance of advocating for policies that protect their participation in existing sectors while empowering them to enter emerging industries. By addressing these gendered impacts, we can create more equitable and sustainable solutions to climate change, ensuring that women play a key role in building climate-resilient communities.
Knowledge series
Migration Climate Change and Gender
- July , 2025
- Divya Singh (IWWAGE), Aiman Akhtar (PDAG)
Climate change is altering everyday life and livelihoods across India, and its impacts are not felt equally. Women, particularly those from marginalised and low-income communities, are often the first to absorb the effects of climate shocks, whether through disrupted livelihoods, migration, or the pressures of extreme weather. These experiences are shaped by long-standing social and economic inequalities, making it essential to look beyond sectoral solutions. One of the least visible but most affected areas is the care economy. As climate risks intensify, women’s unpaid and poorly paid care work expands, especially during displacement, crises, and recovery. Care work plays a critical role in helping families and communities cope with climate stress, yet it remains largely invisible within climate policy and planning. Looking at climate change through the lens of care helps reveal two connected dynamics: how climate risks reshape care responsibilities, and how the way care is organised influences resilience and adaptation. Recognising care, valuing women’s unpaid labour, and strengthening care systems are therefore not add-ons, but central to effective climate responses. This series of policy briefs, jointly developed by IWWAGE and PDAG, explores these connections in detail. It examines how care work is shaped by climate-related vulnerabilities, labour transitions, and forced mobility, with close attention to gendered outcomes. The series is part of a broader climate–gender conversation that includes work, migration, governance, and energy transitions, while centring experiences from India and the Global South. Through this initiative, we aim to deepen understanding, inform policy choices, and contribute meaningfully to ongoing discussions on climate change, care, and gender equality.
Climate change is altering everyday life and livelihoods across India, and its impacts are not felt equally. Women, particularly those from marginalised and low-income communities, are often the first to absorb the effects of climate shocks, whether through disrupted livelihoods, migration, or the pressures of extreme weather. These experiences are shaped by long-standing social and economic inequalities, making it essential to look beyond sectoral solutions. One of the least visible but most affected areas is the care economy. As climate risks intensify, women’s unpaid and poorly paid care work expands, especially during displacement, crises, and recovery. Care work plays a critical role in helping families and communities cope with climate stress, yet it remains largely invisible within climate policy and planning. Looking at climate change through the lens of care helps reveal two connected dynamics: how climate risks reshape care responsibilities, and how the way care is organised influences resilience and adaptation. Recognising care, valuing women’s unpaid labour, and strengthening care systems are therefore not add-ons, but central to effective climate responses. This series of policy briefs, jointly developed by IWWAGE and PDAG, explores these connections in detail. It examines how care work is shaped by climate-related vulnerabilities, labour transitions, and forced mobility, with close attention to gendered outcomes. The series is part of a broader climate–gender conversation that includes work, migration, governance, and energy transitions, while centring experiences from India and the Global South. Through this initiative, we aim to deepen understanding, inform policy choices, and contribute meaningfully to ongoing discussions on climate change, care, and gender equality.
Factsheet
Trends in Female Labour and Workforce Participation – Assam
- July , 2025
- Aneek Choudhary and Vidhi
Assam has seen a sharp rise in female labour force participation since 2021–22, now above the national average (50% vs 42% in PLFS 2023–24). However, the 2022–23 gender gap appears distorted due to an NSSO weighting error in a few villages, which led to underreporting of female participation at district, state, and national levels. In parallel, pro-women initiatives such as Sarothi (interest-subsidised loans) and PMKVY 2.0 (industry-relevant skilling) are believed to have supported this improvement. Future analysis will use corrected PLFS data to better track trends and understand the drivers of rising female employment in Assam.
Assam has seen a sharp rise in female labour force participation since 2021–22, now above the national average (50% vs 42% in PLFS 2023–24). However, the 2022–23 gender gap appears distorted due to an NSSO weighting error in a few villages, which led to underreporting of female participation at district, state, and national levels. In parallel, pro-women initiatives such as Sarothi (interest-subsidised loans) and PMKVY 2.0 (industry-relevant skilling) are believed to have supported this improvement. Future analysis will use corrected PLFS data to better track trends and understand the drivers of rising female employment in Assam.
Assam has seen a sharp rise in female labour force participation since 2021–22, now above the national average (50% vs 42% in PLFS 2023–24). However, the 2022–23 gender gap appears distorted due to an NSSO weighting error in a few villages, which led to underreporting of female participation at district, state, and national levels. In parallel, pro-women initiatives such as Sarothi (interest-subsidised loans) and PMKVY 2.0 (industry-relevant skilling) are believed to have supported this improvement. Future analysis will use corrected PLFS data to better track trends and understand the drivers of rising female employment in Assam.
Report
Swayam Process Evaluation: A Year-Long Ethnography Study, Madhya Pradesh & Odisha
- April , 2025
- Anushree Goenka, Lopamudra Nayak, Moumita Mandal
This study assesses the impact of training programmes on community change and empowerment among leaders of Self-Help Groups (SHGs), Village Organisations (VOs), and Cluster-Level Federations (CLFs). It also includes interviews with district- and block-level officials from MPSRLM and OLM to examine how line departments collaborate with community institutions to address and resolve complaints.
This study assesses the impact of training programmes on community change and empowerment among leaders of Self-Help Groups (SHGs), Village Organisations (VOs), and Cluster-Level Federations (CLFs). It also includes interviews with district- and block-level officials from MPSRLM and OLM to examine how line departments collaborate with community institutions to address and resolve complaints.
Factsheet
Trends in Female Labour and Workforce Participation-Bihar
- April , 2025
- Aneek Choudhary and Bidisha Mondal
Bihar, despite being one of India’s fastest-growing states, has the lowest female labour force participation rate, alongside a widening gender gap. Policy focus on girls’ education, skills, entrepreneurship, and social support through schemes such as the Balika Cycle Yojana, Akshar Anchal Yojana, and Kanya Suraksha Yojana have contributed to recent improvements in female participation. Using PLFS data, this factsheet examines trends and key characteristics of women’s employment in Bihar.
Bihar, despite being one of India’s fastest-growing states, has the lowest female labour force participation rate, alongside a widening gender gap. Policy focus on girls’ education, skills, entrepreneurship, and social support through schemes such as the Balika Cycle Yojana, Akshar Anchal Yojana, and Kanya Suraksha Yojana have contributed to recent improvements in female participation. Using PLFS data, this factsheet examines trends and key characteristics of women’s employment in Bihar.
Factsheet
Trends in Female Labour Force Participation in Uttar Pradesh
- April , 2025
- Aneek Choudhary and Bidisha Mondal
Uttar Pradesh, India’s most populous state, has a large working-age female population but a female labor force participation rate that is well below the national average. Regional disparities, weak infrastructure in eastern UP, restrictive socio-cultural norms, and limited economic opportunities contribute to low participation. Female workforce participation has improved since 2017–18, supported by schemes such as the Mudra Yojana and Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana, which have expanded women’s access to credit, strengthened self-help groups, and promoted women’s economic empowerment across the state.
Uttar Pradesh, India’s most populous state, has a large working-age female population but a female labor force participation rate that is well below the national average. Regional disparities, weak infrastructure in eastern UP, restrictive socio-cultural norms, and limited economic opportunities contribute to low participation. Female workforce participation has improved since 2017–18, supported by schemes such as the Mudra Yojana and Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana, which have expanded women’s access to credit, strengthened self-help groups, and promoted women’s economic empowerment across the state.
Factsheet
Trends in Female Labour Force and Workforce Participation- Haryana
- April , 2025
- Vidhi, Aneek Choudhary and Bidisha Mondal
Haryana has transitioned from an agrarian to a more industrial economy, characterized by strong agricultural output and growing sectors such as automotive and IT. Despite economic growth, unemployment remains high, particularly among youth and women, due to limited formal job opportunities and structural challenges. This factsheet analyses female labour force participation in Haryana from 2017–18 to 2023–24, highlighting sectoral trends, occupational segregation, and barriers to workforce entry.
Haryana has transitioned from an agrarian to a more industrial economy, characterized by strong agricultural output and growing sectors such as automotive and IT. Despite economic growth, unemployment remains high, particularly among youth and women, due to limited formal job opportunities and structural challenges. This factsheet analyses female labour force participation in Haryana from 2017–18 to 2023–24, highlighting sectoral trends, occupational segregation, and barriers to workforce entry.
Haryana has transitioned from an agrarian to a more industrial economy, characterized by strong agricultural output and growing sectors such as automotive and IT. Despite economic growth, unemployment remains high, particularly among youth and women, due to limited formal job opportunities and structural challenges. This factsheet analyses female labour force participation in Haryana from 2017–18 to 2023–24, highlighting sectoral trends, occupational segregation, and barriers to workforce entry.