Publications
Publications
Category
Year
Learning note
Women’s Workforce Participation in India: Statewise Trends
- April , 2021
- Nidhi Gyan Pandey
West Bengal, home to 99 million people, is the fourth most populous state in India. With a primarily rural population and agriculture as the main source of employment, women’s work participation rates remain low. Many women in rural areas engage in unpaid agricultural labor, particularly in paddy fields, leading to underreporting of their contributions. The state’s female labour force participation rate (FLFPR) is 17.5%, below the national average. Despite challenges, West Bengal shows strong performance in indicators like maternal mortality and sex ratio, though issues like gender inequality in the labour market and high rates of under-nutrition persist.
West Bengal, home to 99 million people, is the fourth most populous state in India. With a primarily rural population and agriculture as the main source of employment, women’s work participation rates remain low. Many women in rural areas engage in unpaid agricultural labor, particularly in paddy fields, leading to underreporting of their contributions. The state’s female labour force participation rate (FLFPR) is 17.5%, below the national average. Despite challenges, West Bengal shows strong performance in indicators like maternal mortality and sex ratio, though issues like gender inequality in the labour market and high rates of under-nutrition persist.
Working Paper
Working or Not: What Determines Women’s Labour Force Participation in India?
- April , 2021
- Ruchika Chaudhary
The working paper Working or Not: What Determines Women’s Labour Force Participation in India? is an output of the research vertical of the Initiative for What Works to Advance Women and Girls in the Economy (IWWAGE), an initiative of LEAD at Krea University.
The working paper Working or Not: What Determines Women’s Labour Force Participation in India? is an output of the research vertical of the Initiative for What Works to Advance Women and Girls in the Economy (IWWAGE), an initiative of LEAD at Krea University.
SWAYAM
Stories of Resilience and Hope
- April , 2021
The case studies in this compendium showcase and bring visibility to DAY-NRLM’s programmatic work, the different types of gender initiatives that are being implemented to build women’s capacities and voice, and amplify women’s voices and experiences. The cases have been selected to by the State Rural Livelihood Mission (SRLM) for each state, and underscore the brilliant work currently underway.
The case studies in this compendium showcase and bring visibility to DAY-NRLM’s programmatic work, the different types of gender initiatives that are being implemented to build women’s capacities and voice, and amplify women’s voices and experiences. The cases have been selected to by the State Rural Livelihood Mission (SRLM) for each state, and underscore the brilliant work currently underway.
Learning note
Global Policy Summary: Childcare Crisis
- March , 2021
The COVID-19 pandemic magnified the global childcare crisis, exposing deep inequalities in how care work is valued and distributed. With school closures and limited access to childcare services, unpaid care burdens surged-falling disproportionately on women and girls. This not only undermined progress on gender equality but also strained families, reduced women’s economic participation, and weakened childcare systems globally. To ensure a just, resilient recovery, childcare must be placed at the centre of economic and social policy. Governments, donors, and the private sector must work together to support care systems that enable women’s full participation in the workforce and recognise care as essential to economic growth and social well-being. Guided by the ILO’s 5Rs of Care Framework, the policy summary outlines a roadmap for action for pathways to a stronger, more equitable future.
The COVID-19 pandemic magnified the global childcare crisis, exposing deep inequalities in how care work is valued and distributed. With school closures and limited access to childcare services, unpaid care burdens surged-falling disproportionately on women and girls. This not only undermined progress on gender equality but also strained families, reduced women’s economic participation, and weakened childcare systems globally. To ensure a just, resilient recovery, childcare must be placed at the centre of economic and social policy. Governments, donors, and the private sector must work together to support care systems that enable women’s full participation in the workforce and recognise care as essential to economic growth and social well-being. Guided by the ILO’s 5Rs of Care Framework, the policy summary outlines a roadmap for action for pathways to a stronger, more equitable future.
Learning note
Global Executive Summary: Childcare Crisis
- March , 2021
A year into the pandemic, we are no longer just worrying about progress on women’s equality coming to a standstill. We’re now seeing the possibility of such progress being reversed. Globally, women tend to work in low-paying jobs and in the informal sector’s precarious employment that has been upended by lockdowns and COVID-19 restrictions. Adding another layer to this burden, women’s unpaid care work is soaring. The childcare crisis is at a tipping point. Despite being key to human well-being and to the functioning of the economy, care work remains unrecognised, undervalued, and predominantly performed by women and girls the world over. The pandemic has accelerated the demand for care work and exacerbated entrenched gender inequalities. Childcare must be addressed within our COVID-19 recovery plans both to advance gender equality and because it makes fiscal sense. Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), and IWWAGE at LEAD have collaborated to undertake an evidence review of the current childcare crisis and the road for post-COVID recovery and resilience. This brief based on the paper released on International Women’s Day, March 8, 2021 outlines the different pathways in which COVID-19 is impacting women’s care burden, with recommendations for policy solutions and measures that could be explored in different contexts by governments, the private sector, and other key development actors, with a focus on low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).
A year into the pandemic, we are no longer just worrying about progress on women’s equality coming to a standstill. We’re now seeing the possibility of such progress being reversed. Globally, women tend to work in low-paying jobs and in the informal sector’s precarious employment that has been upended by lockdowns and COVID-19 restrictions. Adding another layer to this burden, women’s unpaid care work is soaring. The childcare crisis is at a tipping point. Despite being key to human well-being and to the functioning of the economy, care work remains unrecognised, undervalued, and predominantly performed by women and girls the world over. The pandemic has accelerated the demand for care work and exacerbated entrenched gender inequalities. Childcare must be addressed within our COVID-19 recovery plans both to advance gender equality and because it makes fiscal sense. Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), and IWWAGE at LEAD have collaborated to undertake an evidence review of the current childcare crisis and the road for post-COVID recovery and resilience. This brief based on the paper released on International Women’s Day, March 8, 2021 outlines the different pathways in which COVID-19 is impacting women’s care burden, with recommendations for policy solutions and measures that could be explored in different contexts by governments, the private sector, and other key development actors, with a focus on low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).
IWWAGE-ISI-BRIEFS
Mobility and Safety of Women
- March , 2021
- Hiya Singh Rajput
India’s economic growth has not translated into equal economic participation for women. Female labour force participation fell to a historic low of **23.3% in 2017–18**, with only a few countries reporting lower levels. A major barrier is **women’s safety**—fear of sexual violence in public spaces, transport, schools, and workplaces—which restricts mobility and reduces access to education, work, services, and public life. This perceived risk reinforces social norms limiting women’s freedom; for instance, many women require family permission even to visit a health centre. Improving **safe and affordable public transport**, **women-friendly urban infrastructure**, and **inclusive workplace safety laws** can meaningfully enable higher female LFPR.
India’s economic growth has not translated into equal economic participation for women. Female labour force participation fell to a historic low of **23.3% in 2017–18**, with only a few countries reporting lower levels. A major barrier is **women’s safety**—fear of sexual violence in public spaces, transport, schools, and workplaces—which restricts mobility and reduces access to education, work, services, and public life. This perceived risk reinforces social norms limiting women’s freedom; for instance, many women require family permission even to visit a health centre. Improving **safe and affordable public transport**, **women-friendly urban infrastructure**, and **inclusive workplace safety laws** can meaningfully enable higher female LFPR.
IWWAGE-ISI-BRIEFS
Barriers for Women in Public Employment
- March , 2021
- Steven Walker
Despite strong growth and better health/economic outcomes since the 1990s, women’s labour force participation in India has stagnated or fallen—reaching 17.5% in 2017–18 (PLFS). Even before Covid-19, most working women were in insecure work: 80%+ were self-employed or casual workers, with under 20% in regular salaried jobs. The public sector is the largest source of formal jobs for women—22.6% of female non-agricultural workers are government-employed (about 27% in rural areas). Women also contribute through under-recognised public roles like Anganwadi workers (ICDS) and bank sakhis (NRLM). However, despite more educated young women being ready to work, structural barriers and reduced public hiring are limiting opportunities. With Covid-19 worsening unemployment and recovery needs, removing barriers to women’s public employment is crucial—both for job creation and wider benefits like better service delivery, stronger social protection, and higher household consumption.
Despite strong growth and better health/economic outcomes since the 1990s, women’s labour force participation in India has stagnated or fallen—reaching 17.5% in 2017–18 (PLFS). Even before Covid-19, most working women were in insecure work: 80%+ were self-employed or casual workers, with under 20% in regular salaried jobs. The public sector is the largest source of formal jobs for women—22.6% of female non-agricultural workers are government-employed (about 27% in rural areas). Women also contribute through under-recognised public roles like Anganwadi workers (ICDS) and bank sakhis (NRLM). However, despite more educated young women being ready to work, structural barriers and reduced public hiring are limiting opportunities. With Covid-19 worsening unemployment and recovery needs, removing barriers to women’s public employment is crucial—both for job creation and wider benefits like better service delivery, stronger social protection, and higher household consumption.
Learning note
Women’s Workforce Participation In India: Statewise Trends
- March , 2021
Bihar has the lowest female workforce participation rate (FWPR) among all states at 2.8 percent. The decline in FWPR has been shaper in rural areas as compared to urban areas, pushing a large number of women out of the workforce since 2007-08. With the decline in women workforce, there has been a substantial increase in the share of women in regular employment, in line with the national trend, and a significant decline in the share of self-employed, which is greater than the decline observed at the all India level. Women’s self-employment in Bihar is characterised by high incidence of own account work and low share of unpaid work, in contrast with all India figures.
Bihar has the lowest female workforce participation rate (FWPR) among all states at 2.8 percent. The decline in FWPR has been shaper in rural areas as compared to urban areas, pushing a large number of women out of the workforce since 2007-08. With the decline in women workforce, there has been a substantial increase in the share of women in regular employment, in line with the national trend, and a significant decline in the share of self-employed, which is greater than the decline observed at the all India level. Women’s self-employment in Bihar is characterised by high incidence of own account work and low share of unpaid work, in contrast with all India figures.
Learning note
Women’s Workforce Participation In India: Statewise Trends
- March , 2021
Women’s labourforce participation rates (LFPR) reveals some interesting trends for Maharashtra. As per the figures from the labourforce surveys, the LFPR is significantly higher than the all-India figures, largely driven by higher than average rural employment. The state also shares a decline in self-employment and casual employment and a shift towards regular wage work for both rural and urban women. In Maharashtra the urban areas witnessed a consistent rise in regular wage work of women since 2004-05. More than 60 percent of women are employed as regular workers 70 percent of which is concentrated in the services sector such as education, health and retail. In rural areas, the share of casual workers is considerably higher at around 42 percent, followed by 52 percent in self-employment. The incidence of unpaid family workers among self-employed women exceed 80 percent. While the urban areas show considerable diversity of women workers across occupations and sectors, women in the rural areas remain concentrated as manual workers in agriculture or within construction work.
Women’s labourforce participation rates (LFPR) reveals some interesting trends for Maharashtra. As per the figures from the labourforce surveys, the LFPR is significantly higher than the all-India figures, largely driven by higher than average rural employment. The state also shares a decline in self-employment and casual employment and a shift towards regular wage work for both rural and urban women. In Maharashtra the urban areas witnessed a consistent rise in regular wage work of women since 2004-05. More than 60 percent of women are employed as regular workers 70 percent of which is concentrated in the services sector such as education, health and retail. In rural areas, the share of casual workers is considerably higher at around 42 percent, followed by 52 percent in self-employment. The incidence of unpaid family workers among self-employed women exceed 80 percent. While the urban areas show considerable diversity of women workers across occupations and sectors, women in the rural areas remain concentrated as manual workers in agriculture or within construction work.
Factsheet
Women’s Workforce Participation in India: Statewise Trends
- March , 2021
- Nidhi Gyan Pandey
This factsheet highlights Tamil Nadu’s strong economy, with a GSDP of Rs 18,45,853 crores, and impressive social development. The state ranks third in human development and boasts high female labour force participation rates (rural: 35.1%, urban: 23.6%) along with excellent gender indicators, including a low maternal mortality rate and one of the lowest crime rates against women in India.
This factsheet highlights Tamil Nadu’s strong economy, with a GSDP of Rs 18,45,853 crores, and impressive social development. The state ranks third in human development and boasts high female labour force participation rates (rural: 35.1%, urban: 23.6%) along with excellent gender indicators, including a low maternal mortality rate and one of the lowest crime rates against women in India.
Factsheet
Trends in Female Labour Force Participation in Meghalaya
- August , 2026
- Nabankur Huda, Bidisha Mondal
Meghalaya is a small, hilly state in north-east India with a predominantly rural, agrarian economy and one of the country’s most distinctive social structures. The factsheet explores the trends, opportunities and challenges shaping women’s participation in Meghalaya’s labour market, with a focus on how the state’s social structure and economic transformation influence the nature and quality of women’s work.
Meghalaya is a small, hilly state in north-east India with a predominantly rural, agrarian economy and one of the country’s most distinctive social structures. The factsheet explores the trends, opportunities and challenges shaping women’s participation in Meghalaya’s labour market, with a focus on how the state’s social structure and economic transformation influence the nature and quality of women’s work.
Factsheet
Trends in Female Labour Force Participation in Andhra Pradesh
- August , 2026
- Arpita Paul, Bidisha Mondal
Andhra Pradesh, traditionally an agriculture-based economy, is increasingly transitioning toward manufacturing and services. This factsheet analyses trends in female labour force participation in Andhra Pradesh between 2022 and 2025 using data from the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS). It examines changes in labour force participation and employment rates, employment status, sectoral and occupational distribution, job quality, and the barriers that continue to influence women’s participation in the labour market.
Andhra Pradesh, traditionally an agriculture-based economy, is increasingly transitioning toward manufacturing and services. This factsheet analyses trends in female labour force participation in Andhra Pradesh between 2022 and 2025 using data from the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS). It examines changes in labour force participation and employment rates, employment status, sectoral and occupational distribution, job quality, and the barriers that continue to influence women’s participation in the labour market.
Factsheet
Trends in Female Labour Force Participation in Jharkhand
- July , 2026
- Vidhi Singh, Bidisha Mondal
Female labour force participation in Jharkhand has historically remained below the national average. Overall, the literature highlights an employment structure characterised by informality, sectoral concentration, and limited diversification, particularly for women. This factsheet examines the evolving patterns of female labour force participation in Jharkhand, focusing on sectoral distribution, employment status, occupational structure, and the structural barriers shaping women’s engagement in the workforce
Female labour force participation in Jharkhand has historically remained below the national average. Overall, the literature highlights an employment structure characterised by informality, sectoral concentration, and limited diversification, particularly for women. This factsheet examines the evolving patterns of female labour force participation in Jharkhand, focusing on sectoral distribution, employment status, occupational structure, and the structural barriers shaping women’s engagement in the workforce
Factsheet
Trend in Female Labour Force Participation in India
- June , 2026
- Vidhi Singh | Bidisha Mondal
India’s labour market continues to show a marked structural imbalance in female workforce participation, even amid sustained economic growth since liberalisation. This factsheet examines recent trends in women’s labour market participation in India, focusing on sectoral distribution, employment status, occupational patterns, and the quality of employment.
India’s labour market continues to show a marked structural imbalance in female workforce participation, even amid sustained economic growth since liberalisation. This factsheet examines recent trends in women’s labour market participation in India, focusing on sectoral distribution, employment status, occupational patterns, and the quality of employment.
SWAYAM
Nayi Chetna 3.0 Assessment Report
- April , 2026
- Surabhi Awasthi | Arpita Paul | Alpaxee Kashyap | Moumita Sarkar
The National Gender Campaign – Nayi Chetna 3.0, implemented under the Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana–National Rural Livelihood Mission (DAY-NRLM), represents effort to institutionalise gender equality and address gender-based violence (GBV) through a community-driven, convergent approach. The report highlights the campaign’s scale and innovation- over 13 lakh activities reaching crores of people nationwide alongside new pathways of engagement with adolescents, youth and men and stronger convergence across departments and community institutions.
The National Gender Campaign – Nayi Chetna 3.0, implemented under the Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana–National Rural Livelihood Mission (DAY-NRLM), represents effort to institutionalise gender equality and address gender-based violence (GBV) through a community-driven, convergent approach. The report highlights the campaign’s scale and innovation- over 13 lakh activities reaching crores of people nationwide alongside new pathways of engagement with adolescents, youth and men and stronger convergence across departments and community institutions.
Brief
Menstrual and Menopausal Health at Work in India
- February , 2026
- Arundati Muralidharan, Aditi Vyas, Sharati Roy, Vidhi Singh
This policy brief highlights that menstrual and menopausal health are not temporary issues but lifelong realities that significantly affect women’s dignity, wellbeing, and participation in the workforce. Despite rising female labour force participation, workplace support for menstrual and menopausal health remains limited, particularly for women in the informal sector. The brief calls for inclusive workplace policies, stronger social protection, and greater awareness to ensure women can work with dignity and access the support they need throughout their lives.
This policy brief highlights that menstrual and menopausal health are not temporary issues but lifelong realities that significantly affect women’s dignity, wellbeing, and participation in the workforce. Despite rising female labour force participation, workplace support for menstrual and menopausal health remains limited, particularly for women in the informal sector. The brief calls for inclusive workplace policies, stronger social protection, and greater awareness to ensure women can work with dignity and access the support they need throughout their lives.