Explore our annual collection of factsheets for state-wise analysis of women’s workforce participation in India. Using data from the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS), these factsheets highlight trends in female labor force participation, employment types, and earnings gaps. They provide valuable insights for researchers, policymakers, and the public on the evolving landscape of women’s work in India.
Publications
Publications
Category
Year
Learning note
Female Labour Force Participation Rate and Earnings Gap in India
- July , 2020
- Anjana Thampi | Sona Mitra
Welcome to our annual repository of factsheets, where we present a detailed analysis of women’s workforce participation across India. Each year, we gather state-wise data from surveys such as the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) to explore trends in female labour force participation, employment types, and earnings gaps. These factsheets provide a snapshot of the economic and social factors affecting women’s employment, offering valuable insights for researchers, policymakers, and the general public. Dive into the data and discover the evolving landscape of women’s work in India
Welcome to our annual repository of factsheets, where we present a detailed analysis of women’s workforce participation across India. Each year, we gather state-wise data from surveys such as the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) to explore trends in female labour force participation, employment types, and earnings gaps. These factsheets provide a snapshot of the economic and social factors affecting women’s employment, offering valuable insights for researchers, policymakers, and the general public. Dive into the data and discover the evolving landscape of women’s work in India
Learning note
Policies and Programmes For Women and Girls
- July , 2020
- Nidhi Gyan Pandey
Bihar faces significant challenges in health, education, and gender development. With low female literacy and the country’s lowest female workforce participation, the state has launched initiatives like the ‘Mukhyamantri Balika Cycle Yojana,’ improving school attendance and reducing dropout rates. The ‘Saat Nischay’ programme focuses on empowering women through schemes targeting health, education, and infrastructure. While these efforts show promise, more evaluations are needed to assess their impact on women’s development and social protection.
Bihar faces significant challenges in health, education, and gender development. With low female literacy and the country’s lowest female workforce participation, the state has launched initiatives like the ‘Mukhyamantri Balika Cycle Yojana,’ improving school attendance and reducing dropout rates. The ‘Saat Nischay’ programme focuses on empowering women through schemes targeting health, education, and infrastructure. While these efforts show promise, more evaluations are needed to assess their impact on women’s development and social protection.
Factsheet
Female Labour Force Participation Rate and Earnings Gap in India
- July , 2020
- Anjana Thampi, Sona Mitra
Explore our annual collection of factsheets for state-wise analysis of women’s workforce participation in India. Using data from the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS), these factsheets highlight trends in female labor force participation, employment types, and earnings gaps. They provide valuable insights for researchers, policymakers, and the public on the evolving landscape of women’s work in India.
Explore our annual collection of factsheets for state-wise analysis of women’s workforce participation in India. Using data from the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS), these factsheets highlight trends in female labor force participation, employment types, and earnings gaps. They provide valuable insights for researchers, policymakers, and the public on the evolving landscape of women’s work in India.
Report
Voices from the Field
- June , 2020
- Subhalakshmi Nandi , Soumya Kapoor Mehta , Rukmini Tankha
With approximately 67 million women mobilised into Self-Help Groups and federations, owned and represented by women, the Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM) holds great promise for advancing women’s socio-economic empowerment and offering them resilience in times of crises such as the current pandemic. SHG federations across India not only offer means for many poor women to build sustainable households, but are also platforms for them to seek support, including financial, social and psychological support that they derive by associating themselves with others who are like them. Stories from the ground during India’s lockdown phase are suggesting that Self Help Groups (SHGs) of women are being involved by state governments in the fight against COVID-19. SHGs across India have worked day and night to manufacture masks, run community kitchens and assist in health checks. They have helped spread awareness about the virus in the local language and in a culturally-sensitive manner within their communities. Yet, SHGs and their members have been impacted both socially and economically, with many reporting intensive losses to their work and livelihoods, increased drudgery and unpaid work burden and rising incidence of domestic violence. In line with IWWAGE’s core mandate of informing the policy agenda on women’s economic empowerment in India, this report presents a summary of insights gained from recent research and conversations around women’s empowerment collectives (WECs) and how women are dealing with the pandemic and lockdown in India. The report attempts to summarise the challenges women and their collectives are facing during the lockdown and concludes with a series of recommendations.
With approximately 67 million women mobilised into Self-Help Groups and federations, owned and represented by women, the Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM) holds great promise for advancing women’s socio-economic empowerment and offering them resilience in times of crises such as the current pandemic. SHG federations across India not only offer means for many poor women to build sustainable households, but are also platforms for them to seek support, including financial, social and psychological support that they derive by associating themselves with others who are like them. Stories from the ground during India’s lockdown phase are suggesting that Self Help Groups (SHGs) of women are being involved by state governments in the fight against COVID-19. SHGs across India have worked day and night to manufacture masks, run community kitchens and assist in health checks. They have helped spread awareness about the virus in the local language and in a culturally-sensitive manner within their communities. Yet, SHGs and their members have been impacted both socially and economically, with many reporting intensive losses to their work and livelihoods, increased drudgery and unpaid work burden and rising incidence of domestic violence. In line with IWWAGE’s core mandate of informing the policy agenda on women’s economic empowerment in India, this report presents a summary of insights gained from recent research and conversations around women’s empowerment collectives (WECs) and how women are dealing with the pandemic and lockdown in India. The report attempts to summarise the challenges women and their collectives are facing during the lockdown and concludes with a series of recommendations.
Learning note
Women’s Workforce Participation In India: Statewise Trends
- April , 2020
Madhya Pradesh (MP) is the only state in India to have witnessed a rise in workforce participation rates (WPRs) of women in both rural and urban areas between 2011-12 and 2017-18. The increase in women’s WPR in MP was driven largely by increase in self-employment in the rural areas and regular employment in the urban areas. According to the Periodic Labourforce Survey in 2017-18, more than half of the female workforce in the state is self-employed, with a higher incidence of self-employment in rural areas. While approximately 88 percent of the rural self-employed women in MP are engaged in unpaid work, the share of women in own account enterprises is substantially high in urban MP. The distribution of casual women workers suggests very few women engaged under MGNREGA and other public works as 96 percent women in casual employment were engaged in non-public works, with very little security or guarantee of payment
Madhya Pradesh (MP) is the only state in India to have witnessed a rise in workforce participation rates (WPRs) of women in both rural and urban areas between 2011-12 and 2017-18. The increase in women’s WPR in MP was driven largely by increase in self-employment in the rural areas and regular employment in the urban areas. According to the Periodic Labourforce Survey in 2017-18, more than half of the female workforce in the state is self-employed, with a higher incidence of self-employment in rural areas. While approximately 88 percent of the rural self-employed women in MP are engaged in unpaid work, the share of women in own account enterprises is substantially high in urban MP. The distribution of casual women workers suggests very few women engaged under MGNREGA and other public works as 96 percent women in casual employment were engaged in non-public works, with very little security or guarantee of payment
Factsheet
Trends in Female Labour and Workforce Participation – Karnataka
- April , 2020
- Aneek Choudhary , Bidisha Mondal
Karnataka, despite being India’s IT hub, has a lower female labour force participation rate (FLFPR) than the national average. While women’s literacy exceeds 68%, many are engaged in unpaid household work or casual labour. Recent developments, like the ‘Shakti’ scheme, have positively impacted FLFPR by providing safe and affordable transportation, leading to increased workforce participation. However, disparities remain, as highlighted by the PLFS 2023-24 survey. This factsheet explores the trends, challenges, and policy implications affecting women’s participation in Karnataka’s labour market.
Karnataka, despite being India’s IT hub, has a lower female labour force participation rate (FLFPR) than the national average. While women’s literacy exceeds 68%, many are engaged in unpaid household work or casual labour. Recent developments, like the ‘Shakti’ scheme, have positively impacted FLFPR by providing safe and affordable transportation, leading to increased workforce participation. However, disparities remain, as highlighted by the PLFS 2023-24 survey. This factsheet explores the trends, challenges, and policy implications affecting women’s participation in Karnataka’s labour market.
Brief
Accelerating Women’s Access to Entitlements through Digital Solutions
- April , 2020
Digital innovation offers strong opportunities for women in collectives and Self-Help Groups (SHGs) by strengthening connections, expanding networks, and enabling access to services. Digital platforms can help SHGs share information, deliver targeted use cases, and improve access to benefits. By addressing barriers related to mobility, cost, and literacy, digital solutions can significantly enhance women’s social and economic empowerment.
Digital innovation offers strong opportunities for women in collectives and Self-Help Groups (SHGs) by strengthening connections, expanding networks, and enabling access to services. Digital platforms can help SHGs share information, deliver targeted use cases, and improve access to benefits. By addressing barriers related to mobility, cost, and literacy, digital solutions can significantly enhance women’s social and economic empowerment.
Report
Generating Female Employment through Public Employment: A Scoping Paper
- February , 2020
- Dipa Sinha, Jayati Ghosh, Mohini Gupta, Varsha Gupta
The employment generating potential of growth in India has been on the decline with unemployment and the lack of new job opportunities at their peak. According to the data put together by the State of Working India 2018, the relationship between growth and employment generation in India has weakened over time. A related puzzle is that of declining female workforce participation rates in the country, despite increasing education levels as well as economic growth. A major concern for the direction and pace of economic growth is how work and labour force participation rates of women can be improved. Employment in the government, especially in public services delivery, is a potential area where jobs can be created. An emphasis on creating work opportunities for women in public administration and frontline public services can serve the dual purpose of providing universal access to quality public services and reviving demand in the economy. IWWAGE study, Generating Female Employment through Public Employment aims to estimate the impact of creating and regularising jobs for women within the system of public administration, especially in frontline public services delivery. It considers questions on the activities and working conditions of women workers in frontline public services, assesses the number of such workers, and compares them with international estimates. The study also evaluates whether there is gender stereotyping in certain public sector jobs. Additionally, the study captures women’s perceptions of the benefits and constraints of being employed in such jobs. This scoping paper presents the current status of women employed in various levels by the government, based on data from the National Sample Survey (NSS), analysis of government reports, publications, and responses to queries raised using the Right to Information (RTI).
The employment generating potential of growth in India has been on the decline with unemployment and the lack of new job opportunities at their peak. According to the data put together by the State of Working India 2018, the relationship between growth and employment generation in India has weakened over time. A related puzzle is that of declining female workforce participation rates in the country, despite increasing education levels as well as economic growth. A major concern for the direction and pace of economic growth is how work and labour force participation rates of women can be improved. Employment in the government, especially in public services delivery, is a potential area where jobs can be created. An emphasis on creating work opportunities for women in public administration and frontline public services can serve the dual purpose of providing universal access to quality public services and reviving demand in the economy. IWWAGE study, Generating Female Employment through Public Employment aims to estimate the impact of creating and regularising jobs for women within the system of public administration, especially in frontline public services delivery. It considers questions on the activities and working conditions of women workers in frontline public services, assesses the number of such workers, and compares them with international estimates. The study also evaluates whether there is gender stereotyping in certain public sector jobs. Additionally, the study captures women’s perceptions of the benefits and constraints of being employed in such jobs. This scoping paper presents the current status of women employed in various levels by the government, based on data from the National Sample Survey (NSS), analysis of government reports, publications, and responses to queries raised using the Right to Information (RTI).
Brief
Impact of Social Norms on Women’s Economic Empowerment in India
- November , 2025
- Mridusmita Bordoloi, Surabhi Awasthi, Sharati Roy
Women’s Economic Empowerment (WEE) refers to women’s access to economic opportunities, resources, decent work, and the ability to make independent economic choices. It is both a process and an outcome that strengthens individual agency and supports inclusive growth. In countries like India, WEE is constrained not only by structural gaps—such as inadequate care infrastructure, poor connectivity, and limited skills access—but also by deeply rooted gender norms that shape women’s roles in society.
Women’s Economic Empowerment (WEE) refers to women’s access to economic opportunities, resources, decent work, and the ability to make independent economic choices. It is both a process and an outcome that strengthens individual agency and supports inclusive growth. In countries like India, WEE is constrained not only by structural gaps—such as inadequate care infrastructure, poor connectivity, and limited skills access—but also by deeply rooted gender norms that shape women’s roles in society.
Report
Exploring linkages between womens empowerment workforce participation and population dynamics in the Indian context: A comprehensive macro micro analysis
- November , 2025
Gender equality and reproductive autonomy are central to India’s ability to navigate ongoing demographic transitions effectively. The study, a collaboration between the Population Foundation of India and the Institute for What Works to Advance Gender Equality (IWWAGE), presents new evidence on these critical interconnections. By integrating macro-level demographic and human development data with micro-level insights from women’s lived experiences, the study offers one of the most comprehensive analyses of its kind in India, bridging quantitative data with qualitative narratives to illuminate how women’s empowerment shapes the country’s demographic and developmental trajectory.
Gender equality and reproductive autonomy are central to India’s ability to navigate ongoing demographic transitions effectively. The study, a collaboration between the Population Foundation of India and the Institute for What Works to Advance Gender Equality (IWWAGE), presents new evidence on these critical interconnections. By integrating macro-level demographic and human development data with micro-level insights from women’s lived experiences, the study offers one of the most comprehensive analyses of its kind in India, bridging quantitative data with qualitative narratives to illuminate how women’s empowerment shapes the country’s demographic and developmental trajectory.
Factsheet
Trends in Female Labour Force Participation in West Bengal
- October , 2025
- Vidhi and Bidisha Mondal
West Bengal has seen strong economic growth driven by manufacturing, MSMEs and investment, with GSDP projected to grow 12 per cent in 2025–26. However, per capita income remains below the national average. The state has lost around 3 million informal jobs in recent years, disproportionately affecting women, while high outmigration, especially of skilled workers, continues to reshape the labour market. Women remain concentrated in low-productivity informal sectors such as agriculture and domestic work, resulting in low female labour force participation and underscoring the need for targeted employment policies.
West Bengal has seen strong economic growth driven by manufacturing, MSMEs and investment, with GSDP projected to grow 12 per cent in 2025–26. However, per capita income remains below the national average. The state has lost around 3 million informal jobs in recent years, disproportionately affecting women, while high outmigration, especially of skilled workers, continues to reshape the labour market. Women remain concentrated in low-productivity informal sectors such as agriculture and domestic work, resulting in low female labour force participation and underscoring the need for targeted employment policies.
West Bengal has seen strong economic growth driven by manufacturing, MSMEs and investment, with GSDP projected to grow 12 per cent in 2025–26. However, per capita income remains below the national average. The state has lost around 3 million informal jobs in recent years, disproportionately affecting women, while high outmigration, especially of skilled workers, continues to reshape the labour market. Women remain concentrated in low-productivity informal sectors such as agriculture and domestic work, resulting in low female labour force participation and underscoring the need for targeted employment policies.
Working Paper
Working or Not: What Determines Women’s Labour Force Participation in India?
- May , 2021
- Ruchika Chaudhary
This paper delves into the persistent gender gaps in India’s labour market, highlighting the alarming decline in women’s labour force participation despite socio-economic progress. Using data from the Periodic Labour Force Surveys (PLFS) and the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO), it examines the key factors contributing to this trend, including the disproportionate burden of unpaid care work. The paper underscores the need for targeted policies, such as vocational training and gender-responsive initiatives, to empower women and break down barriers to their economic participation.
This paper delves into the persistent gender gaps in India’s labour market, highlighting the alarming decline in women’s labour force participation despite socio-economic progress. Using data from the Periodic Labour Force Surveys (PLFS) and the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO), it examines the key factors contributing to this trend, including the disproportionate burden of unpaid care work. The paper underscores the need for targeted policies, such as vocational training and gender-responsive initiatives, to empower women and break down barriers to their economic participation.
This paper delves into the persistent gender gaps in India’s labour market, highlighting the alarming decline in women’s labour force participation despite socio-economic progress. Using data from the Periodic Labour Force Surveys (PLFS) and the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO), it examines the key factors contributing to this trend, including the disproportionate burden of unpaid care work. The paper underscores the need for targeted policies, such as vocational training and gender-responsive initiatives, to empower women and break down barriers to their economic participation.
Brief
A Crisis in Care India’s Ageing Population and the Need for Strengthened Eldercare – Hindi
- September , 2025
The global population is ageing, presenting complex challenges and new opportunities.The policy brief draws on insights from a roundtable discussion that brought together sectoral experts, practitioners, and academics, along with secondary research.The discussion served as a platform to examine the current state of eldercare in India, identify critical gaps, and explore actionable solutions to increase women’s participation in the formal eldercare workforce.
The global population is ageing, presenting complex challenges and new opportunities.The policy brief draws on insights from a roundtable discussion that brought together sectoral experts, practitioners, and academics, along with secondary research.The discussion served as a platform to examine the current state of eldercare in India, identify critical gaps, and explore actionable solutions to increase women’s participation in the formal eldercare workforce.