Publications
Publications
Category
Year
Learning note
Women’s Workforce Participation in India: Statewise Trends
- April , 2021
- Nidhi Gyan Pandey
West Bengal, home to 99 million people, is the fourth most populous state in India. With a primarily rural population and agriculture as the main source of employment, women’s work participation rates remain low. Many women in rural areas engage in unpaid agricultural labor, particularly in paddy fields, leading to underreporting of their contributions. The state’s female labour force participation rate (FLFPR) is 17.5%, below the national average. Despite challenges, West Bengal shows strong performance in indicators like maternal mortality and sex ratio, though issues like gender inequality in the labour market and high rates of under-nutrition persist.
West Bengal, home to 99 million people, is the fourth most populous state in India. With a primarily rural population and agriculture as the main source of employment, women’s work participation rates remain low. Many women in rural areas engage in unpaid agricultural labor, particularly in paddy fields, leading to underreporting of their contributions. The state’s female labour force participation rate (FLFPR) is 17.5%, below the national average. Despite challenges, West Bengal shows strong performance in indicators like maternal mortality and sex ratio, though issues like gender inequality in the labour market and high rates of under-nutrition persist.
Working Paper
Working or Not: What Determines Women’s Labour Force Participation in India?
- April , 2021
- Ruchika Chaudhary
The working paper Working or Not: What Determines Women’s Labour Force Participation in India? is an output of the research vertical of the Initiative for What Works to Advance Women and Girls in the Economy (IWWAGE), an initiative of LEAD at Krea University.
The working paper Working or Not: What Determines Women’s Labour Force Participation in India? is an output of the research vertical of the Initiative for What Works to Advance Women and Girls in the Economy (IWWAGE), an initiative of LEAD at Krea University.
SWAYAM
Stories of Resilience and Hope
- April , 2021
The case studies in this compendium showcase and bring visibility to DAY-NRLM’s programmatic work, the different types of gender initiatives that are being implemented to build women’s capacities and voice, and amplify women’s voices and experiences. The cases have been selected to by the State Rural Livelihood Mission (SRLM) for each state, and underscore the brilliant work currently underway.
The case studies in this compendium showcase and bring visibility to DAY-NRLM’s programmatic work, the different types of gender initiatives that are being implemented to build women’s capacities and voice, and amplify women’s voices and experiences. The cases have been selected to by the State Rural Livelihood Mission (SRLM) for each state, and underscore the brilliant work currently underway.
Learning note
Global Policy Summary: Childcare Crisis
- March , 2021
The COVID-19 pandemic magnified the global childcare crisis, exposing deep inequalities in how care work is valued and distributed. With school closures and limited access to childcare services, unpaid care burdens surged-falling disproportionately on women and girls. This not only undermined progress on gender equality but also strained families, reduced women’s economic participation, and weakened childcare systems globally. To ensure a just, resilient recovery, childcare must be placed at the centre of economic and social policy. Governments, donors, and the private sector must work together to support care systems that enable women’s full participation in the workforce and recognise care as essential to economic growth and social well-being. Guided by the ILO’s 5Rs of Care Framework, the policy summary outlines a roadmap for action for pathways to a stronger, more equitable future.
The COVID-19 pandemic magnified the global childcare crisis, exposing deep inequalities in how care work is valued and distributed. With school closures and limited access to childcare services, unpaid care burdens surged-falling disproportionately on women and girls. This not only undermined progress on gender equality but also strained families, reduced women’s economic participation, and weakened childcare systems globally. To ensure a just, resilient recovery, childcare must be placed at the centre of economic and social policy. Governments, donors, and the private sector must work together to support care systems that enable women’s full participation in the workforce and recognise care as essential to economic growth and social well-being. Guided by the ILO’s 5Rs of Care Framework, the policy summary outlines a roadmap for action for pathways to a stronger, more equitable future.
Learning note
Global Executive Summary: Childcare Crisis
- March , 2021
A year into the pandemic, we are no longer just worrying about progress on women’s equality coming to a standstill. We’re now seeing the possibility of such progress being reversed. Globally, women tend to work in low-paying jobs and in the informal sector’s precarious employment that has been upended by lockdowns and COVID-19 restrictions. Adding another layer to this burden, women’s unpaid care work is soaring. The childcare crisis is at a tipping point. Despite being key to human well-being and to the functioning of the economy, care work remains unrecognised, undervalued, and predominantly performed by women and girls the world over. The pandemic has accelerated the demand for care work and exacerbated entrenched gender inequalities. Childcare must be addressed within our COVID-19 recovery plans both to advance gender equality and because it makes fiscal sense. Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), and IWWAGE at LEAD have collaborated to undertake an evidence review of the current childcare crisis and the road for post-COVID recovery and resilience. This brief based on the paper released on International Women’s Day, March 8, 2021 outlines the different pathways in which COVID-19 is impacting women’s care burden, with recommendations for policy solutions and measures that could be explored in different contexts by governments, the private sector, and other key development actors, with a focus on low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).
A year into the pandemic, we are no longer just worrying about progress on women’s equality coming to a standstill. We’re now seeing the possibility of such progress being reversed. Globally, women tend to work in low-paying jobs and in the informal sector’s precarious employment that has been upended by lockdowns and COVID-19 restrictions. Adding another layer to this burden, women’s unpaid care work is soaring. The childcare crisis is at a tipping point. Despite being key to human well-being and to the functioning of the economy, care work remains unrecognised, undervalued, and predominantly performed by women and girls the world over. The pandemic has accelerated the demand for care work and exacerbated entrenched gender inequalities. Childcare must be addressed within our COVID-19 recovery plans both to advance gender equality and because it makes fiscal sense. Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), and IWWAGE at LEAD have collaborated to undertake an evidence review of the current childcare crisis and the road for post-COVID recovery and resilience. This brief based on the paper released on International Women’s Day, March 8, 2021 outlines the different pathways in which COVID-19 is impacting women’s care burden, with recommendations for policy solutions and measures that could be explored in different contexts by governments, the private sector, and other key development actors, with a focus on low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).
IWWAGE-ISI-BRIEFS
Mobility and Safety of Women
- March , 2021
- Hiya Singh Rajput
India’s economic growth has not translated into equal economic participation for women. Female labour force participation fell to a historic low of **23.3% in 2017–18**, with only a few countries reporting lower levels. A major barrier is **women’s safety**—fear of sexual violence in public spaces, transport, schools, and workplaces—which restricts mobility and reduces access to education, work, services, and public life. This perceived risk reinforces social norms limiting women’s freedom; for instance, many women require family permission even to visit a health centre. Improving **safe and affordable public transport**, **women-friendly urban infrastructure**, and **inclusive workplace safety laws** can meaningfully enable higher female LFPR.
India’s economic growth has not translated into equal economic participation for women. Female labour force participation fell to a historic low of **23.3% in 2017–18**, with only a few countries reporting lower levels. A major barrier is **women’s safety**—fear of sexual violence in public spaces, transport, schools, and workplaces—which restricts mobility and reduces access to education, work, services, and public life. This perceived risk reinforces social norms limiting women’s freedom; for instance, many women require family permission even to visit a health centre. Improving **safe and affordable public transport**, **women-friendly urban infrastructure**, and **inclusive workplace safety laws** can meaningfully enable higher female LFPR.
IWWAGE-ISI-BRIEFS
Barriers for Women in Public Employment
- March , 2021
- Steven Walker
Despite strong growth and better health/economic outcomes since the 1990s, women’s labour force participation in India has stagnated or fallen—reaching 17.5% in 2017–18 (PLFS). Even before Covid-19, most working women were in insecure work: 80%+ were self-employed or casual workers, with under 20% in regular salaried jobs. The public sector is the largest source of formal jobs for women—22.6% of female non-agricultural workers are government-employed (about 27% in rural areas). Women also contribute through under-recognised public roles like Anganwadi workers (ICDS) and bank sakhis (NRLM). However, despite more educated young women being ready to work, structural barriers and reduced public hiring are limiting opportunities. With Covid-19 worsening unemployment and recovery needs, removing barriers to women’s public employment is crucial—both for job creation and wider benefits like better service delivery, stronger social protection, and higher household consumption.
Despite strong growth and better health/economic outcomes since the 1990s, women’s labour force participation in India has stagnated or fallen—reaching 17.5% in 2017–18 (PLFS). Even before Covid-19, most working women were in insecure work: 80%+ were self-employed or casual workers, with under 20% in regular salaried jobs. The public sector is the largest source of formal jobs for women—22.6% of female non-agricultural workers are government-employed (about 27% in rural areas). Women also contribute through under-recognised public roles like Anganwadi workers (ICDS) and bank sakhis (NRLM). However, despite more educated young women being ready to work, structural barriers and reduced public hiring are limiting opportunities. With Covid-19 worsening unemployment and recovery needs, removing barriers to women’s public employment is crucial—both for job creation and wider benefits like better service delivery, stronger social protection, and higher household consumption.
Learning note
Women’s Workforce Participation In India: Statewise Trends
- March , 2021
Bihar has the lowest female workforce participation rate (FWPR) among all states at 2.8 percent. The decline in FWPR has been shaper in rural areas as compared to urban areas, pushing a large number of women out of the workforce since 2007-08. With the decline in women workforce, there has been a substantial increase in the share of women in regular employment, in line with the national trend, and a significant decline in the share of self-employed, which is greater than the decline observed at the all India level. Women’s self-employment in Bihar is characterised by high incidence of own account work and low share of unpaid work, in contrast with all India figures.
Bihar has the lowest female workforce participation rate (FWPR) among all states at 2.8 percent. The decline in FWPR has been shaper in rural areas as compared to urban areas, pushing a large number of women out of the workforce since 2007-08. With the decline in women workforce, there has been a substantial increase in the share of women in regular employment, in line with the national trend, and a significant decline in the share of self-employed, which is greater than the decline observed at the all India level. Women’s self-employment in Bihar is characterised by high incidence of own account work and low share of unpaid work, in contrast with all India figures.
Learning note
Women’s Workforce Participation In India: Statewise Trends
- March , 2021
Women’s labourforce participation rates (LFPR) reveals some interesting trends for Maharashtra. As per the figures from the labourforce surveys, the LFPR is significantly higher than the all-India figures, largely driven by higher than average rural employment. The state also shares a decline in self-employment and casual employment and a shift towards regular wage work for both rural and urban women. In Maharashtra the urban areas witnessed a consistent rise in regular wage work of women since 2004-05. More than 60 percent of women are employed as regular workers 70 percent of which is concentrated in the services sector such as education, health and retail. In rural areas, the share of casual workers is considerably higher at around 42 percent, followed by 52 percent in self-employment. The incidence of unpaid family workers among self-employed women exceed 80 percent. While the urban areas show considerable diversity of women workers across occupations and sectors, women in the rural areas remain concentrated as manual workers in agriculture or within construction work.
Women’s labourforce participation rates (LFPR) reveals some interesting trends for Maharashtra. As per the figures from the labourforce surveys, the LFPR is significantly higher than the all-India figures, largely driven by higher than average rural employment. The state also shares a decline in self-employment and casual employment and a shift towards regular wage work for both rural and urban women. In Maharashtra the urban areas witnessed a consistent rise in regular wage work of women since 2004-05. More than 60 percent of women are employed as regular workers 70 percent of which is concentrated in the services sector such as education, health and retail. In rural areas, the share of casual workers is considerably higher at around 42 percent, followed by 52 percent in self-employment. The incidence of unpaid family workers among self-employed women exceed 80 percent. While the urban areas show considerable diversity of women workers across occupations and sectors, women in the rural areas remain concentrated as manual workers in agriculture or within construction work.
Factsheet
Women’s Workforce Participation in India: Statewise Trends
- March , 2021
- Nidhi Gyan Pandey
This factsheet highlights Tamil Nadu’s strong economy, with a GSDP of Rs 18,45,853 crores, and impressive social development. The state ranks third in human development and boasts high female labour force participation rates (rural: 35.1%, urban: 23.6%) along with excellent gender indicators, including a low maternal mortality rate and one of the lowest crime rates against women in India.
This factsheet highlights Tamil Nadu’s strong economy, with a GSDP of Rs 18,45,853 crores, and impressive social development. The state ranks third in human development and boasts high female labour force participation rates (rural: 35.1%, urban: 23.6%) along with excellent gender indicators, including a low maternal mortality rate and one of the lowest crime rates against women in India.
Brief
Impact of Social Norms on Women’s Economic Empowerment in India
- November , 2025
- Mridusmita Bordoloi, Surabhi Awasthi, Sharati Roy
Women’s Economic Empowerment (WEE) refers to women’s access to economic opportunities, resources, decent work, and the ability to make independent economic choices. It is both a process and an outcome that strengthens individual agency and supports inclusive growth. In countries like India, WEE is constrained not only by structural gaps—such as inadequate care infrastructure, poor connectivity, and limited skills access—but also by deeply rooted gender norms that shape women’s roles in society.
Women’s Economic Empowerment (WEE) refers to women’s access to economic opportunities, resources, decent work, and the ability to make independent economic choices. It is both a process and an outcome that strengthens individual agency and supports inclusive growth. In countries like India, WEE is constrained not only by structural gaps—such as inadequate care infrastructure, poor connectivity, and limited skills access—but also by deeply rooted gender norms that shape women’s roles in society.
Report
Exploring linkages between womens empowerment workforce participation and population dynamics in the Indian context: A comprehensive macro micro analysis
- November , 2025
Gender equality and reproductive autonomy are central to India’s ability to navigate ongoing demographic transitions effectively. The study, a collaboration between the Population Foundation of India and the Institute for What Works to Advance Gender Equality (IWWAGE), presents new evidence on these critical interconnections. By integrating macro-level demographic and human development data with micro-level insights from women’s lived experiences, the study offers one of the most comprehensive analyses of its kind in India, bridging quantitative data with qualitative narratives to illuminate how women’s empowerment shapes the country’s demographic and developmental trajectory.
Gender equality and reproductive autonomy are central to India’s ability to navigate ongoing demographic transitions effectively. The study, a collaboration between the Population Foundation of India and the Institute for What Works to Advance Gender Equality (IWWAGE), presents new evidence on these critical interconnections. By integrating macro-level demographic and human development data with micro-level insights from women’s lived experiences, the study offers one of the most comprehensive analyses of its kind in India, bridging quantitative data with qualitative narratives to illuminate how women’s empowerment shapes the country’s demographic and developmental trajectory.
Factsheet
Trends in Female Labour Force Participation in West Bengal
- October , 2025
- Vidhi and Bidisha Mondal
West Bengal has seen strong economic growth driven by manufacturing, MSMEs and investment, with GSDP projected to grow 12 per cent in 2025–26. However, per capita income remains below the national average. The state has lost around 3 million informal jobs in recent years, disproportionately affecting women, while high outmigration, especially of skilled workers, continues to reshape the labour market. Women remain concentrated in low-productivity informal sectors such as agriculture and domestic work, resulting in low female labour force participation and underscoring the need for targeted employment policies.
West Bengal has seen strong economic growth driven by manufacturing, MSMEs and investment, with GSDP projected to grow 12 per cent in 2025–26. However, per capita income remains below the national average. The state has lost around 3 million informal jobs in recent years, disproportionately affecting women, while high outmigration, especially of skilled workers, continues to reshape the labour market. Women remain concentrated in low-productivity informal sectors such as agriculture and domestic work, resulting in low female labour force participation and underscoring the need for targeted employment policies.
West Bengal has seen strong economic growth driven by manufacturing, MSMEs and investment, with GSDP projected to grow 12 per cent in 2025–26. However, per capita income remains below the national average. The state has lost around 3 million informal jobs in recent years, disproportionately affecting women, while high outmigration, especially of skilled workers, continues to reshape the labour market. Women remain concentrated in low-productivity informal sectors such as agriculture and domestic work, resulting in low female labour force participation and underscoring the need for targeted employment policies.
Working Paper
Working or Not: What Determines Women’s Labour Force Participation in India?
- May , 2021
- Ruchika Chaudhary
This paper delves into the persistent gender gaps in India’s labour market, highlighting the alarming decline in women’s labour force participation despite socio-economic progress. Using data from the Periodic Labour Force Surveys (PLFS) and the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO), it examines the key factors contributing to this trend, including the disproportionate burden of unpaid care work. The paper underscores the need for targeted policies, such as vocational training and gender-responsive initiatives, to empower women and break down barriers to their economic participation.
This paper delves into the persistent gender gaps in India’s labour market, highlighting the alarming decline in women’s labour force participation despite socio-economic progress. Using data from the Periodic Labour Force Surveys (PLFS) and the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO), it examines the key factors contributing to this trend, including the disproportionate burden of unpaid care work. The paper underscores the need for targeted policies, such as vocational training and gender-responsive initiatives, to empower women and break down barriers to their economic participation.
This paper delves into the persistent gender gaps in India’s labour market, highlighting the alarming decline in women’s labour force participation despite socio-economic progress. Using data from the Periodic Labour Force Surveys (PLFS) and the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO), it examines the key factors contributing to this trend, including the disproportionate burden of unpaid care work. The paper underscores the need for targeted policies, such as vocational training and gender-responsive initiatives, to empower women and break down barriers to their economic participation.
Brief
A Crisis in Care India’s Ageing Population and the Need for Strengthened Eldercare – Hindi
- September , 2025
The global population is ageing, presenting complex challenges and new opportunities.The policy brief draws on insights from a roundtable discussion that brought together sectoral experts, practitioners, and academics, along with secondary research.The discussion served as a platform to examine the current state of eldercare in India, identify critical gaps, and explore actionable solutions to increase women’s participation in the formal eldercare workforce.
The global population is ageing, presenting complex challenges and new opportunities.The policy brief draws on insights from a roundtable discussion that brought together sectoral experts, practitioners, and academics, along with secondary research.The discussion served as a platform to examine the current state of eldercare in India, identify critical gaps, and explore actionable solutions to increase women’s participation in the formal eldercare workforce.