Gujarat records a female labour force participation rate above the national average, supported by government policies promoting women’s economic empowerment. Schemes such as Mukhyamantri Mahila Utkars Yojana and Mahila Swavalamban Scheme strengthen financial inclusion, self-help groups, and access to credit for women, especially those below the poverty line. The state also promotes women’s entrepreneurship through targeted training and awareness programmes. Using PLFS 2023–24 data, this factsheet examines women’s employment in Gujarat, focusing on job types, sectoral distribution, and key indicators shaping female workforce participation.
Publications
Publications
Category
Year
Working Paper
Women’s Awareness of Sexual Harassment and Labour Market Preferences
- April , 2021
- Karmini Sharma
The paper, Women’s Awareness of Sexual Harassment and Labour Market Preferences, is a part of the working paper series and has been produced with the help of IWWAGE research fellowship to young researchers in 2019.
The paper, Women’s Awareness of Sexual Harassment and Labour Market Preferences, is a part of the working paper series and has been produced with the help of IWWAGE research fellowship to young researchers in 2019.
Learning note
Women’s Workforce Participation in India: Statewise Trends
- April , 2021
- Nidhi Gyan Pandey
West Bengal, home to 99 million people, is the fourth most populous state in India. With a primarily rural population and agriculture as the main source of employment, women’s work participation rates remain low. Many women in rural areas engage in unpaid agricultural labor, particularly in paddy fields, leading to underreporting of their contributions. The state’s female labour force participation rate (FLFPR) is 17.5%, below the national average. Despite challenges, West Bengal shows strong performance in indicators like maternal mortality and sex ratio, though issues like gender inequality in the labour market and high rates of under-nutrition persist.
West Bengal, home to 99 million people, is the fourth most populous state in India. With a primarily rural population and agriculture as the main source of employment, women’s work participation rates remain low. Many women in rural areas engage in unpaid agricultural labor, particularly in paddy fields, leading to underreporting of their contributions. The state’s female labour force participation rate (FLFPR) is 17.5%, below the national average. Despite challenges, West Bengal shows strong performance in indicators like maternal mortality and sex ratio, though issues like gender inequality in the labour market and high rates of under-nutrition persist.
Working Paper
Working or Not: What Determines Women’s Labour Force Participation in India?
- April , 2021
- Ruchika Chaudhary
The working paper Working or Not: What Determines Women’s Labour Force Participation in India? is an output of the research vertical of the Initiative for What Works to Advance Women and Girls in the Economy (IWWAGE), an initiative of LEAD at Krea University.
The working paper Working or Not: What Determines Women’s Labour Force Participation in India? is an output of the research vertical of the Initiative for What Works to Advance Women and Girls in the Economy (IWWAGE), an initiative of LEAD at Krea University.
SWAYAM
Stories of Resilience and Hope
- April , 2021
The case studies in this compendium showcase and bring visibility to DAY-NRLM’s programmatic work, the different types of gender initiatives that are being implemented to build women’s capacities and voice, and amplify women’s voices and experiences. The cases have been selected to by the State Rural Livelihood Mission (SRLM) for each state, and underscore the brilliant work currently underway.
The case studies in this compendium showcase and bring visibility to DAY-NRLM’s programmatic work, the different types of gender initiatives that are being implemented to build women’s capacities and voice, and amplify women’s voices and experiences. The cases have been selected to by the State Rural Livelihood Mission (SRLM) for each state, and underscore the brilliant work currently underway.
Learning note
Global Policy Summary: Childcare Crisis
- March , 2021
The COVID-19 pandemic magnified the global childcare crisis, exposing deep inequalities in how care work is valued and distributed. With school closures and limited access to childcare services, unpaid care burdens surged-falling disproportionately on women and girls. This not only undermined progress on gender equality but also strained families, reduced women’s economic participation, and weakened childcare systems globally. To ensure a just, resilient recovery, childcare must be placed at the centre of economic and social policy. Governments, donors, and the private sector must work together to support care systems that enable women’s full participation in the workforce and recognise care as essential to economic growth and social well-being. Guided by the ILO’s 5Rs of Care Framework, the policy summary outlines a roadmap for action for pathways to a stronger, more equitable future.
The COVID-19 pandemic magnified the global childcare crisis, exposing deep inequalities in how care work is valued and distributed. With school closures and limited access to childcare services, unpaid care burdens surged-falling disproportionately on women and girls. This not only undermined progress on gender equality but also strained families, reduced women’s economic participation, and weakened childcare systems globally. To ensure a just, resilient recovery, childcare must be placed at the centre of economic and social policy. Governments, donors, and the private sector must work together to support care systems that enable women’s full participation in the workforce and recognise care as essential to economic growth and social well-being. Guided by the ILO’s 5Rs of Care Framework, the policy summary outlines a roadmap for action for pathways to a stronger, more equitable future.
Learning note
Global Executive Summary: Childcare Crisis
- March , 2021
A year into the pandemic, we are no longer just worrying about progress on women’s equality coming to a standstill. We’re now seeing the possibility of such progress being reversed. Globally, women tend to work in low-paying jobs and in the informal sector’s precarious employment that has been upended by lockdowns and COVID-19 restrictions. Adding another layer to this burden, women’s unpaid care work is soaring. The childcare crisis is at a tipping point. Despite being key to human well-being and to the functioning of the economy, care work remains unrecognised, undervalued, and predominantly performed by women and girls the world over. The pandemic has accelerated the demand for care work and exacerbated entrenched gender inequalities. Childcare must be addressed within our COVID-19 recovery plans both to advance gender equality and because it makes fiscal sense. Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), and IWWAGE at LEAD have collaborated to undertake an evidence review of the current childcare crisis and the road for post-COVID recovery and resilience. This brief based on the paper released on International Women’s Day, March 8, 2021 outlines the different pathways in which COVID-19 is impacting women’s care burden, with recommendations for policy solutions and measures that could be explored in different contexts by governments, the private sector, and other key development actors, with a focus on low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).
A year into the pandemic, we are no longer just worrying about progress on women’s equality coming to a standstill. We’re now seeing the possibility of such progress being reversed. Globally, women tend to work in low-paying jobs and in the informal sector’s precarious employment that has been upended by lockdowns and COVID-19 restrictions. Adding another layer to this burden, women’s unpaid care work is soaring. The childcare crisis is at a tipping point. Despite being key to human well-being and to the functioning of the economy, care work remains unrecognised, undervalued, and predominantly performed by women and girls the world over. The pandemic has accelerated the demand for care work and exacerbated entrenched gender inequalities. Childcare must be addressed within our COVID-19 recovery plans both to advance gender equality and because it makes fiscal sense. Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), and IWWAGE at LEAD have collaborated to undertake an evidence review of the current childcare crisis and the road for post-COVID recovery and resilience. This brief based on the paper released on International Women’s Day, March 8, 2021 outlines the different pathways in which COVID-19 is impacting women’s care burden, with recommendations for policy solutions and measures that could be explored in different contexts by governments, the private sector, and other key development actors, with a focus on low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).
IWWAGE-ISI-BRIEFS
Mobility and Safety of Women
- March , 2021
- Hiya Singh Rajput
India’s economic growth has not translated into equal economic participation for women. Female labour force participation fell to a historic low of **23.3% in 2017–18**, with only a few countries reporting lower levels. A major barrier is **women’s safety**—fear of sexual violence in public spaces, transport, schools, and workplaces—which restricts mobility and reduces access to education, work, services, and public life. This perceived risk reinforces social norms limiting women’s freedom; for instance, many women require family permission even to visit a health centre. Improving **safe and affordable public transport**, **women-friendly urban infrastructure**, and **inclusive workplace safety laws** can meaningfully enable higher female LFPR.
India’s economic growth has not translated into equal economic participation for women. Female labour force participation fell to a historic low of **23.3% in 2017–18**, with only a few countries reporting lower levels. A major barrier is **women’s safety**—fear of sexual violence in public spaces, transport, schools, and workplaces—which restricts mobility and reduces access to education, work, services, and public life. This perceived risk reinforces social norms limiting women’s freedom; for instance, many women require family permission even to visit a health centre. Improving **safe and affordable public transport**, **women-friendly urban infrastructure**, and **inclusive workplace safety laws** can meaningfully enable higher female LFPR.
IWWAGE-ISI-BRIEFS
Barriers for Women in Public Employment
- March , 2021
- Steven Walker
Despite strong growth and better health/economic outcomes since the 1990s, women’s labour force participation in India has stagnated or fallen—reaching 17.5% in 2017–18 (PLFS). Even before Covid-19, most working women were in insecure work: 80%+ were self-employed or casual workers, with under 20% in regular salaried jobs. The public sector is the largest source of formal jobs for women—22.6% of female non-agricultural workers are government-employed (about 27% in rural areas). Women also contribute through under-recognised public roles like Anganwadi workers (ICDS) and bank sakhis (NRLM). However, despite more educated young women being ready to work, structural barriers and reduced public hiring are limiting opportunities. With Covid-19 worsening unemployment and recovery needs, removing barriers to women’s public employment is crucial—both for job creation and wider benefits like better service delivery, stronger social protection, and higher household consumption.
Despite strong growth and better health/economic outcomes since the 1990s, women’s labour force participation in India has stagnated or fallen—reaching 17.5% in 2017–18 (PLFS). Even before Covid-19, most working women were in insecure work: 80%+ were self-employed or casual workers, with under 20% in regular salaried jobs. The public sector is the largest source of formal jobs for women—22.6% of female non-agricultural workers are government-employed (about 27% in rural areas). Women also contribute through under-recognised public roles like Anganwadi workers (ICDS) and bank sakhis (NRLM). However, despite more educated young women being ready to work, structural barriers and reduced public hiring are limiting opportunities. With Covid-19 worsening unemployment and recovery needs, removing barriers to women’s public employment is crucial—both for job creation and wider benefits like better service delivery, stronger social protection, and higher household consumption.
Learning note
Women’s Workforce Participation In India: Statewise Trends
- March , 2021
Bihar has the lowest female workforce participation rate (FWPR) among all states at 2.8 percent. The decline in FWPR has been shaper in rural areas as compared to urban areas, pushing a large number of women out of the workforce since 2007-08. With the decline in women workforce, there has been a substantial increase in the share of women in regular employment, in line with the national trend, and a significant decline in the share of self-employed, which is greater than the decline observed at the all India level. Women’s self-employment in Bihar is characterised by high incidence of own account work and low share of unpaid work, in contrast with all India figures.
Bihar has the lowest female workforce participation rate (FWPR) among all states at 2.8 percent. The decline in FWPR has been shaper in rural areas as compared to urban areas, pushing a large number of women out of the workforce since 2007-08. With the decline in women workforce, there has been a substantial increase in the share of women in regular employment, in line with the national trend, and a significant decline in the share of self-employed, which is greater than the decline observed at the all India level. Women’s self-employment in Bihar is characterised by high incidence of own account work and low share of unpaid work, in contrast with all India figures.
Learning note
Women’s Workforce Participation In India: Statewise Trends
- March , 2021
Women’s labourforce participation rates (LFPR) reveals some interesting trends for Maharashtra. As per the figures from the labourforce surveys, the LFPR is significantly higher than the all-India figures, largely driven by higher than average rural employment. The state also shares a decline in self-employment and casual employment and a shift towards regular wage work for both rural and urban women. In Maharashtra the urban areas witnessed a consistent rise in regular wage work of women since 2004-05. More than 60 percent of women are employed as regular workers 70 percent of which is concentrated in the services sector such as education, health and retail. In rural areas, the share of casual workers is considerably higher at around 42 percent, followed by 52 percent in self-employment. The incidence of unpaid family workers among self-employed women exceed 80 percent. While the urban areas show considerable diversity of women workers across occupations and sectors, women in the rural areas remain concentrated as manual workers in agriculture or within construction work.
Women’s labourforce participation rates (LFPR) reveals some interesting trends for Maharashtra. As per the figures from the labourforce surveys, the LFPR is significantly higher than the all-India figures, largely driven by higher than average rural employment. The state also shares a decline in self-employment and casual employment and a shift towards regular wage work for both rural and urban women. In Maharashtra the urban areas witnessed a consistent rise in regular wage work of women since 2004-05. More than 60 percent of women are employed as regular workers 70 percent of which is concentrated in the services sector such as education, health and retail. In rural areas, the share of casual workers is considerably higher at around 42 percent, followed by 52 percent in self-employment. The incidence of unpaid family workers among self-employed women exceed 80 percent. While the urban areas show considerable diversity of women workers across occupations and sectors, women in the rural areas remain concentrated as manual workers in agriculture or within construction work.
Factsheet
Trends in Female Labour Force Participation in Gujrat
- April , 2025
- Aneek Choudhary and Bidisha Mondal
Gujarat records a female labour force participation rate above the national average, supported by government policies promoting women’s economic empowerment. Schemes such as Mukhyamantri Mahila Utkars Yojana and Mahila Swavalamban Scheme strengthen financial inclusion, self-help groups, and access to credit for women, especially those below the poverty line. The state also promotes women’s entrepreneurship through targeted training and awareness programmes. Using PLFS 2023–24 data, this factsheet examines women’s employment in Gujarat, focusing on job types, sectoral distribution, and key indicators shaping female workforce participation.
Gujarat records a female labour force participation rate above the national average, supported by government policies promoting women’s economic empowerment. Schemes such as Mukhyamantri Mahila Utkars Yojana and Mahila Swavalamban Scheme strengthen financial inclusion, self-help groups, and access to credit for women, especially those below the poverty line. The state also promotes women’s entrepreneurship through targeted training and awareness programmes. Using PLFS 2023–24 data, this factsheet examines women’s employment in Gujarat, focusing on job types, sectoral distribution, and key indicators shaping female workforce participation.
Factsheet
Trend in Female Labour Force Participation in Chhattisgarh
- April , 2025
- Aneek Choudhary and Bidisha Mondal
Chhattisgarh records a significantly higher female labour force participation rate than the national average, particularly in rural areas, with rising women’s participation evident since before 2016. Tribal women participate in the labour market at much higher rates than non-tribal women, but most are engaged in self-employment, with a large share working as unpaid family workers. While schemes such as Mahila Kosh and the National Rural Livelihoods Mission aim to promote women’s financial independence, the dominance of unpaid work highlights the need for a deeper examination of labour market conditions and opportunities for women in the state.
Chhattisgarh records a significantly higher female labour force participation rate than the national average, particularly in rural areas, with rising women’s participation evident since before 2016. Tribal women participate in the labour market at much higher rates than non-tribal women, but most are engaged in self-employment, with a large share working as unpaid family workers. While schemes such as Mahila Kosh and the National Rural Livelihoods Mission aim to promote women’s financial independence, the dominance of unpaid work highlights the need for a deeper examination of labour market conditions and opportunities for women in the state.
Chhattisgarh records a significantly higher female labour force participation rate than the national average, particularly in rural areas, with rising women’s participation evident since before 2016. Tribal women participate in the labour market at much higher rates than non-tribal women, but most are engaged in self-employment, with a large share working as unpaid family workers. While schemes such as Mahila Kosh and the National Rural Livelihoods Mission aim to promote women’s financial independence, the dominance of unpaid work highlights the need for a deeper examination of labour market conditions and opportunities for women in the state.
Factsheet
Trends in Female Labour Force Participation in Assam
- April , 2025
- Aneek Choudhary, Vidhi and Bidisha Mondal
Assam has seen a notable rise in female labour force participation since 2021–22, exceeding the national average. However, data for 2022–23 shows an unusually wide gender gap and the lowest recorded female participation, largely due to an NSSO enumeration error that led to underreporting. In recent years, the state has introduced several pro-women initiatives focused on self-employment, skill development, and access to credit, which are expected to support higher female participation. Updated PLFS data will provide a clearer picture of emerging trends in women’s employment in Assam.
Assam has seen a notable rise in female labour force participation since 2021–22, exceeding the national average. However, data for 2022–23 shows an unusually wide gender gap and the lowest recorded female participation, largely due to an NSSO enumeration error that led to underreporting. In recent years, the state has introduced several pro-women initiatives focused on self-employment, skill development, and access to credit, which are expected to support higher female participation. Updated PLFS data will provide a clearer picture of emerging trends in women’s employment in Assam.
Assam has seen a notable rise in female labour force participation since 2021–22, exceeding the national average. However, data for 2022–23 shows an unusually wide gender gap and the lowest recorded female participation, largely due to an NSSO enumeration error that led to underreporting. In recent years, the state has introduced several pro-women initiatives focused on self-employment, skill development, and access to credit, which are expected to support higher female participation. Updated PLFS data will provide a clearer picture of emerging trends in women’s employment in Assam.
Factsheet
Trend In Female Labour Force and Workforce Participation- Telangana
- April , 2025
- Vidhi and Bidisha Mondal
Telangana has emerged as a major industrial and services-led economy, with GSDP growing nearly 197% between 2014–15 and 2023–24. Services contribute about two-thirds of GSVA, while industry has achieved near gender parity in employment due to targeted policy interventions. Agriculture remains a key employer, engaging 45.8% of the population but contributing a smaller share to GSDP. Women are largely concentrated in agriculture, while men dominate services. This factsheet examines trends in female labour force participation in Telangana from 2017–18 to 2023–24, focusing on sectoral distribution, occupational segregation, and workforce barriers.
Telangana has emerged as a major industrial and services-led economy, with GSDP growing nearly 197% between 2014–15 and 2023–24. Services contribute about two-thirds of GSVA, while industry has achieved near gender parity in employment due to targeted policy interventions. Agriculture remains a key employer, engaging 45.8% of the population but contributing a smaller share to GSDP. Women are largely concentrated in agriculture, while men dominate services. This factsheet examines trends in female labour force participation in Telangana from 2017–18 to 2023–24, focusing on sectoral distribution, occupational segregation, and workforce barriers.
Telangana has emerged as a major industrial and services-led economy, with GSDP growing nearly 197% between 2014–15 and 2023–24. Services contribute about two-thirds of GSVA, while industry has achieved near gender parity in employment due to targeted policy interventions. Agriculture remains a key employer, engaging 45.8% of the population but contributing a smaller share to GSDP. Women are largely concentrated in agriculture, while men dominate services. This factsheet examines trends in female labour force participation in Telangana from 2017–18 to 2023–24, focusing on sectoral distribution, occupational segregation, and workforce barriers.
Factsheet
Trends in Female Labour and Workforce Participation- Meghalaya
- April , 2025
- Aneek Chowdhury, Bidisha Mondal
Meghalaya’s FLFPR is significantly higher than the average for India and many other states. Although the proportion of self-employed women has risen in both rural and urban areas, the overwhelming majority (over 75 per cent) are own-account workers. The report highlights the Female Labour Force Participation Rate (FLFPR) in Meghalaya compared to other states in the country and delve into the specific data and factors influencing this FLFPR.
Meghalaya’s FLFPR is significantly higher than the average for India and many other states. Although the proportion of self-employed women has risen in both rural and urban areas, the overwhelming majority (over 75 per cent) are own-account workers. The report highlights the Female Labour Force Participation Rate (FLFPR) in Meghalaya compared to other states in the country and delve into the specific data and factors influencing this FLFPR.
Factsheet
Trends in Female Labour and Workforce Participation – Chhattisgarh
- April , 2025
- Aneek Choudhary
Chhattisgarh records significantly higher female labour force participation than the national average (60% vs 42% in PLFS 2023–24), driven mainly by increased involvement of women in agriculture and allied activities since 2016. However, much of this work remains informal, with high shares of self-employment and unpaid family labour (91% in PLFS 2023–24). While schemes like the Mahila Cash and National Rural Livelihoods Mission have expanded women’s self-help groups, these patterns point to the need for deeper analysis of job quality, labour conditions, and meaningful economic opportunities for women in the state.
Chhattisgarh records significantly higher female labour force participation than the national average (60% vs 42% in PLFS 2023–24), driven mainly by increased involvement of women in agriculture and allied activities since 2016. However, much of this work remains informal, with high shares of self-employment and unpaid family labour (91% in PLFS 2023–24). While schemes like the Mahila Cash and National Rural Livelihoods Mission have expanded women’s self-help groups, these patterns point to the need for deeper analysis of job quality, labour conditions, and meaningful economic opportunities for women in the state.
Chhattisgarh records significantly higher female labour force participation than the national average (60% vs 42% in PLFS 2023–24), driven mainly by increased involvement of women in agriculture and allied activities since 2016. However, much of this work remains informal, with high shares of self-employment and unpaid family labour (91% in PLFS 2023–24). While schemes like the Mahila Cash and National Rural Livelihoods Mission have expanded women’s self-help groups, these patterns point to the need for deeper analysis of job quality, labour conditions, and meaningful economic opportunities for women in the state.