This rapid assessment explores how hybrid work models are reshaping opportunities for women in India post-pandemic. It examines the benefits and challenges of hybrid work, with data from 400 working women across various sectors. Featuring a case study of a rural BPO in Uttarakhand, the study highlights the potential of hybrid work for women in both urban and rural areas, offering insights into its impact on productivity, autonomy, and work-life balance.
Publications
Publications
Category
Year
Brief
Emerging Priorities in the Care Sector: Opportunities for India’s G20 Presidency
- March , 2023
- Sona Mitra and Sruthi Kutty
Care work has emerged as a critical issue in shaping the women-led development agenda at the G20. This brief highlights priority concerns for India’s G20 presidency. Care work—both paid and unpaid—is essential to the functioning of economies and societies, yet it is disproportionately shouldered by women due to entrenched gender norms and the gendered division of labour. This unequal burden remains a major barrier to women’s participation in labour markets. Evidence shows that care responsibilities significantly limit women’s income-earning capacity and economic agency, with women globally spending two to ten times more time on unpaid care work than men.
Care work has emerged as a critical issue in shaping the women-led development agenda at the G20. This brief highlights priority concerns for India’s G20 presidency. Care work—both paid and unpaid—is essential to the functioning of economies and societies, yet it is disproportionately shouldered by women due to entrenched gender norms and the gendered division of labour. This unequal burden remains a major barrier to women’s participation in labour markets. Evidence shows that care responsibilities significantly limit women’s income-earning capacity and economic agency, with women globally spending two to ten times more time on unpaid care work than men.
Learning note
Gender Responsive Budgeting: Good Practices from Select States
- March , 2023
- Sona Mitra | Sruthi Kutty
Mainstreaming gender into development financing has gained global momentum, with the Addis Ababa Action Agenda reinforcing the need for gender-sensitive approaches in financial, economic, and social policies. In India, the journey towards Gender Responsive Budgeting (GRB) began with efforts in the Sixth Five Year Plan and was institutionalised at the central level in 2004-05. GRB aims to integrate gender considerations across development planning, programme formulation, and budgeting processes. India’s GRB mechanism functions through Gender Budget Cells and the Gender Budget Statement (GBS), covering 57 ministries as of 2022. While the framework provides an avenue for monitoring fund allocations and their impact on gender equality, significant gaps remain in its implementation. State governments, such as Odisha and Kerala, have shown greater success in embedding gender concerns into policy-making, with Odisha allocating over 40% of its budget towards gender priorities. However, at the national level, gender budgeting remains low, accounting for less than 5% of the Union Budget. This brief highlights the divrse approaches to GRB across states like Odisha, Karnataka, Kerala, and Andhra Pradesh, showcasing experiences, lessons learnt, and good practices in advancing gender equality through fiscal policy.
Mainstreaming gender into development financing has gained global momentum, with the Addis Ababa Action Agenda reinforcing the need for gender-sensitive approaches in financial, economic, and social policies. In India, the journey towards Gender Responsive Budgeting (GRB) began with efforts in the Sixth Five Year Plan and was institutionalised at the central level in 2004-05. GRB aims to integrate gender considerations across development planning, programme formulation, and budgeting processes. India’s GRB mechanism functions through Gender Budget Cells and the Gender Budget Statement (GBS), covering 57 ministries as of 2022. While the framework provides an avenue for monitoring fund allocations and their impact on gender equality, significant gaps remain in its implementation. State governments, such as Odisha and Kerala, have shown greater success in embedding gender concerns into policy-making, with Odisha allocating over 40% of its budget towards gender priorities. However, at the national level, gender budgeting remains low, accounting for less than 5% of the Union Budget. This brief highlights the divrse approaches to GRB across states like Odisha, Karnataka, Kerala, and Andhra Pradesh, showcasing experiences, lessons learnt, and good practices in advancing gender equality through fiscal policy.
Brief
Creating Flexible and Gender-responsive Workplaces
- March , 2023
- Shreya Ghosh | Suhani Pandey | Sonakshi Chaudhary
The COVID-19 pandemic triggered a significant shift in the ‘future of work,’ with remote work rapidly becoming a global norm. In India, this shift was accompanied by a gendered impact-women faced higher job losses and slower recovery rates than men, particularly among the highly educated. Despite challenges such as lack of infrastructure and fear of career setbacks, there is a growing demand among women for flexible work arrangements. Studies show that 8 in 10 women in India now prefer greater workplace flexibility, underscoring the need for gender-responsive remote work policies. Recognising these trends, the Government of India, along with several state governments, has initiated efforts to create remote work ecosystems, including ‘Work Near Home’ centres and co-working spaces. These initiatives, especially in the services sector like IT/ITES-which employs over 4.7 million people with 35% female representation-offer a unique opportunity to boost women’s labour force participation. However, for such models to be inclusive and scalable, they must incorporate thoughtful design principles that address sector-specific challenges and prioritise women’s needs for safety, infrastructure, and digital access.
The COVID-19 pandemic triggered a significant shift in the ‘future of work,’ with remote work rapidly becoming a global norm. In India, this shift was accompanied by a gendered impact-women faced higher job losses and slower recovery rates than men, particularly among the highly educated. Despite challenges such as lack of infrastructure and fear of career setbacks, there is a growing demand among women for flexible work arrangements. Studies show that 8 in 10 women in India now prefer greater workplace flexibility, underscoring the need for gender-responsive remote work policies. Recognising these trends, the Government of India, along with several state governments, has initiated efforts to create remote work ecosystems, including ‘Work Near Home’ centres and co-working spaces. These initiatives, especially in the services sector like IT/ITES-which employs over 4.7 million people with 35% female representation-offer a unique opportunity to boost women’s labour force participation. However, for such models to be inclusive and scalable, they must incorporate thoughtful design principles that address sector-specific challenges and prioritise women’s needs for safety, infrastructure, and digital access.
Report
Hybrid Models and Women’s Work in India, Emerging Insights
- March , 2023
- Sona Mitra, Aishwarya Joshi, Mahima Chaki
Learning note
Women’s Workforce Participation in India: Statewise Trends
- March , 2023
- Trisha Chandra , Sona Mitra , Bidisha Mondal
Karnataka, the sixth largest state in India, covers an area of 191,791 square kilometres and has a Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) of INR 18.85 trillion. Known as India’s leading Information Technology hub, with Bengaluru as the tech capital, Karnataka also has a diverse economy with a strong agricultural base. While over 41% of the workforce depends on agriculture, the services sector contributes 66% to the state’s GSDP. Karnataka boasts one of the highest female labour force participation rates in India, with a Work Participation Rate (WPR) of 31.5% as per the 2021-22 PLFS. Women workers are primarily engaged in agriculture in rural areas and in manufacturing and services in urban regions. This factsheet provides an overview of Karnataka’s socio-economic landscape and workforce trends.
Karnataka, the sixth largest state in India, covers an area of 191,791 square kilometres and has a Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) of INR 18.85 trillion. Known as India’s leading Information Technology hub, with Bengaluru as the tech capital, Karnataka also has a diverse economy with a strong agricultural base. While over 41% of the workforce depends on agriculture, the services sector contributes 66% to the state’s GSDP. Karnataka boasts one of the highest female labour force participation rates in India, with a Work Participation Rate (WPR) of 31.5% as per the 2021-22 PLFS. Women workers are primarily engaged in agriculture in rural areas and in manufacturing and services in urban regions. This factsheet provides an overview of Karnataka’s socio-economic landscape and workforce trends.
Learning note
Women’s Workforce Participation in India: Statewise Trends
- March , 2023
- Trisha Chandra , Sona Mitra , Bidisha Mondal
Formed in 2000, Jharkhand is rich in natural resources, covering nearly 80,000 square kilometers with 23,605 sq. km of forest land. The state contributes 40% of India’s total mineral resources, housing major industrial towns like Jamshedpur and Bokaro. While mining and industrial activities are significant, agriculture remains the mainstay for 50.4% of the population. Jharkhand’s female Work Participation Rate (WPR) was 35.2% in 2021-22, driven largely by the state’s tribal population. This factsheet explores Jharkhand’s economy, employment trends, and the role of women in its workforce.
Formed in 2000, Jharkhand is rich in natural resources, covering nearly 80,000 square kilometers with 23,605 sq. km of forest land. The state contributes 40% of India’s total mineral resources, housing major industrial towns like Jamshedpur and Bokaro. While mining and industrial activities are significant, agriculture remains the mainstay for 50.4% of the population. Jharkhand’s female Work Participation Rate (WPR) was 35.2% in 2021-22, driven largely by the state’s tribal population. This factsheet explores Jharkhand’s economy, employment trends, and the role of women in its workforce.
Report
Evidence Review of the Global Childcare Crisis
- March , 2023
- Kate Grantham , Leva Rouhani, Neelanjana Gupta
The COVID-19 pandemic reversed gains in women’s equality by intensifying unpaid care work and triggering a global childcare crisis. School and childcare closures sharply increased care demands, disproportionately affecting women—especially those in low-paid, informal, and vulnerable jobs—leading to job losses, income insecurity, and limited social protection. Despite its economic importance, childcare remains underfunded and unpaid care work undervalued. Expanding access to affordable, quality childcare is essential to support women’s employment, reduce poverty, create jobs, and enable an inclusive and sustainable post-COVID recovery.
The COVID-19 pandemic reversed gains in women’s equality by intensifying unpaid care work and triggering a global childcare crisis. School and childcare closures sharply increased care demands, disproportionately affecting women—especially those in low-paid, informal, and vulnerable jobs—leading to job losses, income insecurity, and limited social protection. Despite its economic importance, childcare remains underfunded and unpaid care work undervalued. Expanding access to affordable, quality childcare is essential to support women’s employment, reduce poverty, create jobs, and enable an inclusive and sustainable post-COVID recovery.
Factsheet
Women’s Workforce Participation in India: Statewise Trends
- March , 2023
- Trisha Chandra, Sona Mitra
This factsheet provides an overview of Jharkhand’s economy, known for its rich mineral resources and industrial hubs like Jamshedpur and Bokaro. While mining is key, agriculture supports over half the population. In 2021-22, the state’s female Work Participation Rate (WPR) stood at 35.2%, largely driven by its tribal communities. Explore Jharkhand’s employment trends and the role of women in its workforce.
The female Work Participation Rate (WPR) is high in Jharkhand due to its tribal population.The WPR for rural women has increased significantly over the past few years; however, the WPR of women from ST social groups has stagnated at very low levels.
The female Work Participation Rate (WPR) is high in Jharkhand due to its tribal population.The WPR for rural women has increased significantly over the past few years; however, the WPR of women from ST social groups has stagnated at very low levels.
Report
Gender Modules
- February , 2023
- Moumita Sarkar | Soya Thomas | Seema Bhaskaran
The Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM) is a key initiative of the Government of India, led by the Ministry of Rural Development. It aims to collectivise women into institutions that empower them by addressing their needs and concerns, while ensuring their active participation in the development planning process. To advance gender equality, DAY-NRLM follows a two-pronged strategy: establishing functional institutional mechanisms that link communities to governance system and integrating gender-responsive approaches across all program areas. The goal is to foster an environment where women can actively participate in traditional and non-traditional livelihoods and overcome barriers in both public and private spheres. As part of this effort, DAY-NRLM has developed a comprehensive set of 17 training modules. These modules are designed to enhance understanding of key gender concepts and human behaviour, using experiential learning methods such as real-life stories, games, and participatory sessions. They will be used to train National Resource Persons, staff, and community cadres, with the aim of building a demand-driven system that recognises the intersectional challenges faced by women and girls. Developed in collaboration with IWWAGE, these modules cover a wide range of topics, including gender division of labour, asset ownership, and other core concepts, with additional content shaped by state-level needs and the gender operational strategy. This resource is instrumental in supporting DAY-NRLM’s mission to promote gender equality and ensure women’s visibility and empowerment in rural communities.
The Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM) is a key initiative of the Government of India, led by the Ministry of Rural Development. It aims to collectivise women into institutions that empower them by addressing their needs and concerns, while ensuring their active participation in the development planning process. To advance gender equality, DAY-NRLM follows a two-pronged strategy: establishing functional institutional mechanisms that link communities to governance system and integrating gender-responsive approaches across all program areas. The goal is to foster an environment where women can actively participate in traditional and non-traditional livelihoods and overcome barriers in both public and private spheres. As part of this effort, DAY-NRLM has developed a comprehensive set of 17 training modules. These modules are designed to enhance understanding of key gender concepts and human behaviour, using experiential learning methods such as real-life stories, games, and participatory sessions. They will be used to train National Resource Persons, staff, and community cadres, with the aim of building a demand-driven system that recognises the intersectional challenges faced by women and girls. Developed in collaboration with IWWAGE, these modules cover a wide range of topics, including gender division of labour, asset ownership, and other core concepts, with additional content shaped by state-level needs and the gender operational strategy. This resource is instrumental in supporting DAY-NRLM’s mission to promote gender equality and ensure women’s visibility and empowerment in rural communities.
Report
Women and Work, How India Fared in 2022
- February , 2023
- IWWAGE , TQH
2022 presented a landscape of change as the world aimed for greater resilience, recovery and growth as things began to open up post the COVID-19 pandemic. Spurred by changes in the overall outlook on work, women’s participation in the workforce also reflected a shift, with remote and hybrid work emerging strongly in certain sectors, in continuation of trends set during the height of the pandemic. Similarly, even in work that cannot be performed remotely, there has been a deepening in positive trends. As lockdowns lifted, women persondays in certain employment schemes also climbed. Against this backdrop, India has assumed the G20 presidency for 2023, and the year provides the nation with the opportunity to not only proactively set the agenda for women-led development, but also plan for the next phase of growth. There is thus a need to provide a roadmap for enablers of women-led development, whether through participation in leadership, reflection in policy mandates, or even addressing barriers to work. From the macro-political economic scenario to the specific challenges faced by women, this report situates women’s work against the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead, particularly in light of India’s G20 presidency. Threaded through with insights from IWWAGE and LEAD’s research on the subject, the report covers trends across available data sources on scheme performances, policy changes, and political announcements, mapping the contours of women’s work in India and looking ahead to 2023.
2022 presented a landscape of change as the world aimed for greater resilience, recovery and growth as things began to open up post the COVID-19 pandemic. Spurred by changes in the overall outlook on work, women’s participation in the workforce also reflected a shift, with remote and hybrid work emerging strongly in certain sectors, in continuation of trends set during the height of the pandemic. Similarly, even in work that cannot be performed remotely, there has been a deepening in positive trends. As lockdowns lifted, women persondays in certain employment schemes also climbed. Against this backdrop, India has assumed the G20 presidency for 2023, and the year provides the nation with the opportunity to not only proactively set the agenda for women-led development, but also plan for the next phase of growth. There is thus a need to provide a roadmap for enablers of women-led development, whether through participation in leadership, reflection in policy mandates, or even addressing barriers to work. From the macro-political economic scenario to the specific challenges faced by women, this report situates women’s work against the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead, particularly in light of India’s G20 presidency. Threaded through with insights from IWWAGE and LEAD’s research on the subject, the report covers trends across available data sources on scheme performances, policy changes, and political announcements, mapping the contours of women’s work in India and looking ahead to 2023.
Knowledge series
Migration Climate Change and Gender
- July , 2025
- Divya Singh (IWWAGE), Aiman Akhtar (PDAG)
Climate change is altering everyday life and livelihoods across India, and its impacts are not felt equally. Women, particularly those from marginalised and low-income communities, are often the first to absorb the effects of climate shocks, whether through disrupted livelihoods, migration, or the pressures of extreme weather. These experiences are shaped by long-standing social and economic inequalities, making it essential to look beyond sectoral solutions. One of the least visible but most affected areas is the care economy. As climate risks intensify, women’s unpaid and poorly paid care work expands, especially during displacement, crises, and recovery. Care work plays a critical role in helping families and communities cope with climate stress, yet it remains largely invisible within climate policy and planning. Looking at climate change through the lens of care helps reveal two connected dynamics: how climate risks reshape care responsibilities, and how the way care is organised influences resilience and adaptation. Recognising care, valuing women’s unpaid labour, and strengthening care systems are therefore not add-ons, but central to effective climate responses. This series of policy briefs, jointly developed by IWWAGE and PDAG, explores these connections in detail. It examines how care work is shaped by climate-related vulnerabilities, labour transitions, and forced mobility, with close attention to gendered outcomes. The series is part of a broader climate–gender conversation that includes work, migration, governance, and energy transitions, while centring experiences from India and the Global South. Through this initiative, we aim to deepen understanding, inform policy choices, and contribute meaningfully to ongoing discussions on climate change, care, and gender equality.
Climate change is altering everyday life and livelihoods across India, and its impacts are not felt equally. Women, particularly those from marginalised and low-income communities, are often the first to absorb the effects of climate shocks, whether through disrupted livelihoods, migration, or the pressures of extreme weather. These experiences are shaped by long-standing social and economic inequalities, making it essential to look beyond sectoral solutions. One of the least visible but most affected areas is the care economy. As climate risks intensify, women’s unpaid and poorly paid care work expands, especially during displacement, crises, and recovery. Care work plays a critical role in helping families and communities cope with climate stress, yet it remains largely invisible within climate policy and planning. Looking at climate change through the lens of care helps reveal two connected dynamics: how climate risks reshape care responsibilities, and how the way care is organised influences resilience and adaptation. Recognising care, valuing women’s unpaid labour, and strengthening care systems are therefore not add-ons, but central to effective climate responses. This series of policy briefs, jointly developed by IWWAGE and PDAG, explores these connections in detail. It examines how care work is shaped by climate-related vulnerabilities, labour transitions, and forced mobility, with close attention to gendered outcomes. The series is part of a broader climate–gender conversation that includes work, migration, governance, and energy transitions, while centring experiences from India and the Global South. Through this initiative, we aim to deepen understanding, inform policy choices, and contribute meaningfully to ongoing discussions on climate change, care, and gender equality.
Factsheet
Trends in Female Labour and Workforce Participation – Assam
- July , 2025
- Aneek Choudhary and Vidhi
Assam has seen a sharp rise in female labour force participation since 2021–22, now above the national average (50% vs 42% in PLFS 2023–24). However, the 2022–23 gender gap appears distorted due to an NSSO weighting error in a few villages, which led to underreporting of female participation at district, state, and national levels. In parallel, pro-women initiatives such as Sarothi (interest-subsidised loans) and PMKVY 2.0 (industry-relevant skilling) are believed to have supported this improvement. Future analysis will use corrected PLFS data to better track trends and understand the drivers of rising female employment in Assam.
Assam has seen a sharp rise in female labour force participation since 2021–22, now above the national average (50% vs 42% in PLFS 2023–24). However, the 2022–23 gender gap appears distorted due to an NSSO weighting error in a few villages, which led to underreporting of female participation at district, state, and national levels. In parallel, pro-women initiatives such as Sarothi (interest-subsidised loans) and PMKVY 2.0 (industry-relevant skilling) are believed to have supported this improvement. Future analysis will use corrected PLFS data to better track trends and understand the drivers of rising female employment in Assam.
Assam has seen a sharp rise in female labour force participation since 2021–22, now above the national average (50% vs 42% in PLFS 2023–24). However, the 2022–23 gender gap appears distorted due to an NSSO weighting error in a few villages, which led to underreporting of female participation at district, state, and national levels. In parallel, pro-women initiatives such as Sarothi (interest-subsidised loans) and PMKVY 2.0 (industry-relevant skilling) are believed to have supported this improvement. Future analysis will use corrected PLFS data to better track trends and understand the drivers of rising female employment in Assam.
Report
Swayam Process Evaluation: A Year-Long Ethnography Study, Madhya Pradesh & Odisha
- April , 2025
- Anushree Goenka, Lopamudra Nayak, Moumita Mandal
This study assesses the impact of training programmes on community change and empowerment among leaders of Self-Help Groups (SHGs), Village Organisations (VOs), and Cluster-Level Federations (CLFs). It also includes interviews with district- and block-level officials from MPSRLM and OLM to examine how line departments collaborate with community institutions to address and resolve complaints.
This study assesses the impact of training programmes on community change and empowerment among leaders of Self-Help Groups (SHGs), Village Organisations (VOs), and Cluster-Level Federations (CLFs). It also includes interviews with district- and block-level officials from MPSRLM and OLM to examine how line departments collaborate with community institutions to address and resolve complaints.
Factsheet
Trends in Female Labour and Workforce Participation-Bihar
- April , 2025
- Aneek Choudhary and Bidisha Mondal
Bihar, despite being one of India’s fastest-growing states, has the lowest female labour force participation rate, alongside a widening gender gap. Policy focus on girls’ education, skills, entrepreneurship, and social support through schemes such as the Balika Cycle Yojana, Akshar Anchal Yojana, and Kanya Suraksha Yojana have contributed to recent improvements in female participation. Using PLFS data, this factsheet examines trends and key characteristics of women’s employment in Bihar.
Bihar, despite being one of India’s fastest-growing states, has the lowest female labour force participation rate, alongside a widening gender gap. Policy focus on girls’ education, skills, entrepreneurship, and social support through schemes such as the Balika Cycle Yojana, Akshar Anchal Yojana, and Kanya Suraksha Yojana have contributed to recent improvements in female participation. Using PLFS data, this factsheet examines trends and key characteristics of women’s employment in Bihar.
Factsheet
Trends in Female Labour Force Participation in Uttar Pradesh
- April , 2025
- Aneek Choudhary and Bidisha Mondal
Uttar Pradesh, India’s most populous state, has a large working-age female population but a female labor force participation rate that is well below the national average. Regional disparities, weak infrastructure in eastern UP, restrictive socio-cultural norms, and limited economic opportunities contribute to low participation. Female workforce participation has improved since 2017–18, supported by schemes such as the Mudra Yojana and Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana, which have expanded women’s access to credit, strengthened self-help groups, and promoted women’s economic empowerment across the state.
Uttar Pradesh, India’s most populous state, has a large working-age female population but a female labor force participation rate that is well below the national average. Regional disparities, weak infrastructure in eastern UP, restrictive socio-cultural norms, and limited economic opportunities contribute to low participation. Female workforce participation has improved since 2017–18, supported by schemes such as the Mudra Yojana and Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana, which have expanded women’s access to credit, strengthened self-help groups, and promoted women’s economic empowerment across the state.
Factsheet
Trends in Female Labour Force and Workforce Participation- Haryana
- April , 2025
- Vidhi, Aneek Choudhary and Bidisha Mondal
Haryana has transitioned from an agrarian to a more industrial economy, characterized by strong agricultural output and growing sectors such as automotive and IT. Despite economic growth, unemployment remains high, particularly among youth and women, due to limited formal job opportunities and structural challenges. This factsheet analyses female labour force participation in Haryana from 2017–18 to 2023–24, highlighting sectoral trends, occupational segregation, and barriers to workforce entry.
Haryana has transitioned from an agrarian to a more industrial economy, characterized by strong agricultural output and growing sectors such as automotive and IT. Despite economic growth, unemployment remains high, particularly among youth and women, due to limited formal job opportunities and structural challenges. This factsheet analyses female labour force participation in Haryana from 2017–18 to 2023–24, highlighting sectoral trends, occupational segregation, and barriers to workforce entry.
Haryana has transitioned from an agrarian to a more industrial economy, characterized by strong agricultural output and growing sectors such as automotive and IT. Despite economic growth, unemployment remains high, particularly among youth and women, due to limited formal job opportunities and structural challenges. This factsheet analyses female labour force participation in Haryana from 2017–18 to 2023–24, highlighting sectoral trends, occupational segregation, and barriers to workforce entry.