Assam has seen a sharp rise in female labour force participation since 2021–22, now above the national average (50% vs 42% in PLFS 2023–24). However, the 2022–23 gender gap appears distorted due to an NSSO weighting error in a few villages, which led to underreporting of female participation at district, state, and national levels. In parallel, pro-women initiatives such as Sarothi (interest-subsidised loans) and PMKVY 2.0 (industry-relevant skilling) are believed to have supported this improvement. Future analysis will use corrected PLFS data to better track trends and understand the drivers of rising female employment in Assam.
Publications
Publications
Category
Year
Learning note
Hybrid Work and its Effect on Womens Labour Force Participation
- June , 2023
- Sona Mitra | Preethi Rao | Aishwarya Joshi
The COVID-19 pandemic redefined workspaces globally, with many organisations adopting hybrid work models that offer employees flexibility between working from home and in the office. In India, this shift holds potential to increase women’s participation in the workforce, as hybrid work can help women balance care responsibilities, safety concerns, and mobility challenges. However, it also presents unique challenges for women, including increased stress, burnout, and a heavier burden of unpaid care work. This policy review highlights the need for gender-inclusive hybrid work policies, drawing on global best practices and insights from 60 countries. It reveals that while hybrid models are becoming the norm, there is a lack of specific provisions addressing women’s unique needs. In India, the absence of comprehensive remote work policies and gender-responsive guidelines further complicates the situation, despite some initiatives like the Maternity Benefit Act and the Sexual Harassment at Workplace Act extending protection to remote work. This publication calls for concerted efforts by both government and private sectors to develop gender-responsive hybrid work policies. Recommendations include transparent compensation policies, clear communication channels, flexible evaluation systems, childcare support, and training for managers to ensure a gender-inclusive work environment. By adopting these measures, organisations can minimise attrition, maximise retention, and create a more equitable hybrid workplace for women.
The COVID-19 pandemic redefined workspaces globally, with many organisations adopting hybrid work models that offer employees flexibility between working from home and in the office. In India, this shift holds potential to increase women’s participation in the workforce, as hybrid work can help women balance care responsibilities, safety concerns, and mobility challenges. However, it also presents unique challenges for women, including increased stress, burnout, and a heavier burden of unpaid care work. This policy review highlights the need for gender-inclusive hybrid work policies, drawing on global best practices and insights from 60 countries. It reveals that while hybrid models are becoming the norm, there is a lack of specific provisions addressing women’s unique needs. In India, the absence of comprehensive remote work policies and gender-responsive guidelines further complicates the situation, despite some initiatives like the Maternity Benefit Act and the Sexual Harassment at Workplace Act extending protection to remote work. This publication calls for concerted efforts by both government and private sectors to develop gender-responsive hybrid work policies. Recommendations include transparent compensation policies, clear communication channels, flexible evaluation systems, childcare support, and training for managers to ensure a gender-inclusive work environment. By adopting these measures, organisations can minimise attrition, maximise retention, and create a more equitable hybrid workplace for women.
Learning note
Emerging Priorities in the Care Sector: Opportunities for Indias G20 Presidency
- June , 2023
- Sruthi Kutty | Sona Mitra
Care work-both paid and unpaid-plays a vital role in supporting economies and societies. However, it is predominantly shouldered by women, which limits their ability to participate in the formal workforce. As India assumes the G20 presidency, there is an opportunity to spotlight the care sector as a driver of gender-responsive development. This brief explores the potential of the care economy, highlighting the need for investments in care infrastructure and care workers. By recognising care as a critical sector, and investing in childcare, elder care, and support for persons with disabilities, India can unlock new economic opportunities for women. Adequate investments in infrastructure and trained care workers can reduce the burden on women, enabling them to access employment and contribute to the economy. The brief also calls for public and private sector collaboration to enhance social security, fair wages, and decent working conditions for care workers. Addressing the invisibility of unpaid care work through better measurement tools is key to acknowledging women’s contributions and integrating care work into economic policies.
Care work-both paid and unpaid-plays a vital role in supporting economies and societies. However, it is predominantly shouldered by women, which limits their ability to participate in the formal workforce. As India assumes the G20 presidency, there is an opportunity to spotlight the care sector as a driver of gender-responsive development. This brief explores the potential of the care economy, highlighting the need for investments in care infrastructure and care workers. By recognising care as a critical sector, and investing in childcare, elder care, and support for persons with disabilities, India can unlock new economic opportunities for women. Adequate investments in infrastructure and trained care workers can reduce the burden on women, enabling them to access employment and contribute to the economy. The brief also calls for public and private sector collaboration to enhance social security, fair wages, and decent working conditions for care workers. Addressing the invisibility of unpaid care work through better measurement tools is key to acknowledging women’s contributions and integrating care work into economic policies.
Newsletter (Gender In Focus)
Gender in Focus
- June , 2023
- IWWAGE
In this issue, we have included the insights from ‘Together We Can’, a compilation of case studies of how women’s collectives from different Indian states address the issue of gender-based violence that could serve as an example for others.
In this issue, we have included the insights from ‘Together We Can’, a compilation of case studies of how women’s collectives from different Indian states address the issue of gender-based violence that could serve as an example for others.
Learning note
Women’s Workforce Participation in India: Statewise Trends
- April , 2023
- Suchika Gupta , Sona Mitra , Bidisha Mondal
Uttar Pradesh, with a population of nearly 200 million, is India’s most populous state and the fourth largest by area. Despite a literacy rate of 57.1% for women in 2011 and a female unemployment rate of 13.1% in urban areas in 2020-21, UP remains an economic powerhouse. It is the largest producer of food grains and accounts for 90% of India’s carpet production. With a Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) of INR 17.49 trillion in 2021-22, UP’s economy is driven by its thriving agricultural, textile, and tertiary sectors. This factsheet explores key socio-economic and employment trends in the state.
Uttar Pradesh, with a population of nearly 200 million, is India’s most populous state and the fourth largest by area. Despite a literacy rate of 57.1% for women in 2011 and a female unemployment rate of 13.1% in urban areas in 2020-21, UP remains an economic powerhouse. It is the largest producer of food grains and accounts for 90% of India’s carpet production. With a Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) of INR 17.49 trillion in 2021-22, UP’s economy is driven by its thriving agricultural, textile, and tertiary sectors. This factsheet explores key socio-economic and employment trends in the state.
Learning note
Women’s Workforce Participation in India: Statewise Trends
- April , 2023
- Suchika Gupta , Sona Mitra , Bidisha Mondal
Assam, the second-largest state in the northeast by population and area, had a population of 3.12 crore in 2011. With a Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) of INR 3,73,872 crores in 2020-21, the state’s Female Labour Force Participation (FLFP) rate stands at 18.9% in rural areas and 16% in urban areas, lower than the national average. Assam’s gender ratio in 2020-21 was 958 females per 1,000 males, and the literacy rate was 72.2%, with a gender disparity in literacy-77.85% for men and 66.27% for women. This factsheet examines Assam’s key socio-economic indicators.
Assam, the second-largest state in the northeast by population and area, had a population of 3.12 crore in 2011. With a Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) of INR 3,73,872 crores in 2020-21, the state’s Female Labour Force Participation (FLFP) rate stands at 18.9% in rural areas and 16% in urban areas, lower than the national average. Assam’s gender ratio in 2020-21 was 958 females per 1,000 males, and the literacy rate was 72.2%, with a gender disparity in literacy-77.85% for men and 66.27% for women. This factsheet examines Assam’s key socio-economic indicators.
Factsheet
Women’s Workforce Participation in India: Statewise Trends
- April , 2023
- Suchika Gupta, Sona Mitra, Bidisha Mondal
This factsheet highlights Assam’s key socio-economic indicators, including a Female Labour Force Participation (FLFP) rate of 18.9% in rural areas and 16% in urban areas, both below the national average. With a literacy rate of 72.2%, the state shows notable gender disparity in education. Explore Assam’s economic landscape, gender ratios, and workforce trends.
This factsheet highlights Assam’s key socio-economic indicators, including a Female Labour Force Participation (FLFP) rate of 18.9% in rural areas and 16% in urban areas, both below the national average. With a literacy rate of 72.2%, the state shows notable gender disparity in education. Explore Assam’s economic landscape, gender ratios, and workforce trends.
Factsheet
Women’s Workforce Participation in India: Statewise Trends
- April , 2023
- Nidhi Gyan Pandey
West Bengal (WB) is located on the eastern coast of the Indian peninsula and is part of the fertile Indo-Gangetic Plain. It is the fourth most populous state in the country, with a population of about 99 million.This factsheet examines West Bengal’s key socio-economic indicators.
West Bengal (WB) is located on the eastern coast of the Indian peninsula and is part of the fertile Indo-Gangetic Plain. It is the fourth most populous state in the country, with a population of about 99 million.This factsheet examines West Bengal’s key socio-economic indicators.
Factsheet
Women’s Workforce Participation in India: Statewise Trends
- April , 2023
- Suchika Gupta, Sona Mitra
Uttar Pradesh, with a population of nearly 200 million, is India’s most populous state and the fourth largest by area.This factsheet explores key socio-economic and employment trends in the state
Uttar Pradesh, with a population of nearly 200 million, is India’s most populous state and the fourth largest by area.This factsheet explores key socio-economic and employment trends in the state
Brief
Hybrid Work and its Effect on Women’s Labour Force Participation
- April , 2023
- Areen Deshmukh, Mitali Nikore
COVID-19 and related lockdowns disrupted the global economy and reshaped the concept of the workplace. Organisations worldwide are increasingly adopting hybrid work models that combine remote and in-office work, a trend also evident in India, where 73% of firms plan to shift to hybrid work (CBRE). Women are more vulnerable to such economic shocks due to structural inequities and their disproportionate burden of unpaid care work, which intensified during the pandemic as care institutions shut down. As a result, women’s employment in India was severely affected, with 13.4 million women (26.6%) exiting the labour force between March–April 2020. Hybrid work offers potential to support women’s labour force participation by providing flexibility for those facing caregiving responsibilities, safety concerns, or mobility constraints. This policy review analyses existing government and private-sector hybrid work policies and identifies global best practices. The study draws on a literature review of policy and legal frameworks across 60 countries, along with consultations with key stakeholders.
COVID-19 and related lockdowns disrupted the global economy and reshaped the concept of the workplace. Organisations worldwide are increasingly adopting hybrid work models that combine remote and in-office work, a trend also evident in India, where 73% of firms plan to shift to hybrid work (CBRE). Women are more vulnerable to such economic shocks due to structural inequities and their disproportionate burden of unpaid care work, which intensified during the pandemic as care institutions shut down. As a result, women’s employment in India was severely affected, with 13.4 million women (26.6%) exiting the labour force between March–April 2020. Hybrid work offers potential to support women’s labour force participation by providing flexibility for those facing caregiving responsibilities, safety concerns, or mobility constraints. This policy review analyses existing government and private-sector hybrid work policies and identifies global best practices. The study draws on a literature review of policy and legal frameworks across 60 countries, along with consultations with key stakeholders.
Working Paper
Understanding the barriers to womens career advancement in manufacturing sector
- March , 2023
- Aishwarya Joshi , Kaavyayani Pal , Mahima Chaki
The COVID-19 pandemic catalysed a shift in how we work, bringing hybrid work models into the spotlight especially for women. These flexible arrangements offer greater autonomy over time, often leading to improved work-life balance, reduced costs, and higher productivity. However, the benefits and challenges of hybrid work are not experienced equally its effects are often gendered. While most existing research on hybrid work focuses on ICT-intensive sectors, there’s limited data on how women across different industries and regions are engaging with this model. With the government’s push for a digitally empowered society under the Digital India Programme, and a growing emphasis on enterprise development in peri-urban and rural areas, hybrid work holds promise for expanding economic opportunities for women. This rapid assessment captures insights from 400 working women, including 150 currently in hybrid roles, across sectors such as technology, social services, and healthcare. With an average respondent age of 27 years and nearly half residing outside metropolitan areas, the study highlights both the opportunities and gaps in hybrid work adoption. A case study from a rural BPO in Uttarakhand further explores how hybrid work could transform women’s employment in non-urban settings.
The COVID-19 pandemic catalysed a shift in how we work, bringing hybrid work models into the spotlight especially for women. These flexible arrangements offer greater autonomy over time, often leading to improved work-life balance, reduced costs, and higher productivity. However, the benefits and challenges of hybrid work are not experienced equally its effects are often gendered. While most existing research on hybrid work focuses on ICT-intensive sectors, there’s limited data on how women across different industries and regions are engaging with this model. With the government’s push for a digitally empowered society under the Digital India Programme, and a growing emphasis on enterprise development in peri-urban and rural areas, hybrid work holds promise for expanding economic opportunities for women. This rapid assessment captures insights from 400 working women, including 150 currently in hybrid roles, across sectors such as technology, social services, and healthcare. With an average respondent age of 27 years and nearly half residing outside metropolitan areas, the study highlights both the opportunities and gaps in hybrid work adoption. A case study from a rural BPO in Uttarakhand further explores how hybrid work could transform women’s employment in non-urban settings.
Knowledge series
Migration Climate Change and Gender
- July , 2025
- Divya Singh (IWWAGE), Aiman Akhtar (PDAG)
Climate change is altering everyday life and livelihoods across India, and its impacts are not felt equally. Women, particularly those from marginalised and low-income communities, are often the first to absorb the effects of climate shocks, whether through disrupted livelihoods, migration, or the pressures of extreme weather. These experiences are shaped by long-standing social and economic inequalities, making it essential to look beyond sectoral solutions. One of the least visible but most affected areas is the care economy. As climate risks intensify, women’s unpaid and poorly paid care work expands, especially during displacement, crises, and recovery. Care work plays a critical role in helping families and communities cope with climate stress, yet it remains largely invisible within climate policy and planning. Looking at climate change through the lens of care helps reveal two connected dynamics: how climate risks reshape care responsibilities, and how the way care is organised influences resilience and adaptation. Recognising care, valuing women’s unpaid labour, and strengthening care systems are therefore not add-ons, but central to effective climate responses. This series of policy briefs, jointly developed by IWWAGE and PDAG, explores these connections in detail. It examines how care work is shaped by climate-related vulnerabilities, labour transitions, and forced mobility, with close attention to gendered outcomes. The series is part of a broader climate–gender conversation that includes work, migration, governance, and energy transitions, while centring experiences from India and the Global South. Through this initiative, we aim to deepen understanding, inform policy choices, and contribute meaningfully to ongoing discussions on climate change, care, and gender equality.
Climate change is altering everyday life and livelihoods across India, and its impacts are not felt equally. Women, particularly those from marginalised and low-income communities, are often the first to absorb the effects of climate shocks, whether through disrupted livelihoods, migration, or the pressures of extreme weather. These experiences are shaped by long-standing social and economic inequalities, making it essential to look beyond sectoral solutions. One of the least visible but most affected areas is the care economy. As climate risks intensify, women’s unpaid and poorly paid care work expands, especially during displacement, crises, and recovery. Care work plays a critical role in helping families and communities cope with climate stress, yet it remains largely invisible within climate policy and planning. Looking at climate change through the lens of care helps reveal two connected dynamics: how climate risks reshape care responsibilities, and how the way care is organised influences resilience and adaptation. Recognising care, valuing women’s unpaid labour, and strengthening care systems are therefore not add-ons, but central to effective climate responses. This series of policy briefs, jointly developed by IWWAGE and PDAG, explores these connections in detail. It examines how care work is shaped by climate-related vulnerabilities, labour transitions, and forced mobility, with close attention to gendered outcomes. The series is part of a broader climate–gender conversation that includes work, migration, governance, and energy transitions, while centring experiences from India and the Global South. Through this initiative, we aim to deepen understanding, inform policy choices, and contribute meaningfully to ongoing discussions on climate change, care, and gender equality.
Factsheet
Trends in Female Labour and Workforce Participation – Assam
- July , 2025
- Aneek Choudhary and Vidhi
Assam has seen a sharp rise in female labour force participation since 2021–22, now above the national average (50% vs 42% in PLFS 2023–24). However, the 2022–23 gender gap appears distorted due to an NSSO weighting error in a few villages, which led to underreporting of female participation at district, state, and national levels. In parallel, pro-women initiatives such as Sarothi (interest-subsidised loans) and PMKVY 2.0 (industry-relevant skilling) are believed to have supported this improvement. Future analysis will use corrected PLFS data to better track trends and understand the drivers of rising female employment in Assam.
Assam has seen a sharp rise in female labour force participation since 2021–22, now above the national average (50% vs 42% in PLFS 2023–24). However, the 2022–23 gender gap appears distorted due to an NSSO weighting error in a few villages, which led to underreporting of female participation at district, state, and national levels. In parallel, pro-women initiatives such as Sarothi (interest-subsidised loans) and PMKVY 2.0 (industry-relevant skilling) are believed to have supported this improvement. Future analysis will use corrected PLFS data to better track trends and understand the drivers of rising female employment in Assam.
Report
Swayam Process Evaluation: A Year-Long Ethnography Study, Madhya Pradesh & Odisha
- April , 2025
- Anushree Goenka, Lopamudra Nayak, Moumita Mandal
This study assesses the impact of training programmes on community change and empowerment among leaders of Self-Help Groups (SHGs), Village Organisations (VOs), and Cluster-Level Federations (CLFs). It also includes interviews with district- and block-level officials from MPSRLM and OLM to examine how line departments collaborate with community institutions to address and resolve complaints.
This study assesses the impact of training programmes on community change and empowerment among leaders of Self-Help Groups (SHGs), Village Organisations (VOs), and Cluster-Level Federations (CLFs). It also includes interviews with district- and block-level officials from MPSRLM and OLM to examine how line departments collaborate with community institutions to address and resolve complaints.
Factsheet
Trends in Female Labour and Workforce Participation-Bihar
- April , 2025
- Aneek Choudhary and Bidisha Mondal
Bihar, despite being one of India’s fastest-growing states, has the lowest female labour force participation rate, alongside a widening gender gap. Policy focus on girls’ education, skills, entrepreneurship, and social support through schemes such as the Balika Cycle Yojana, Akshar Anchal Yojana, and Kanya Suraksha Yojana have contributed to recent improvements in female participation. Using PLFS data, this factsheet examines trends and key characteristics of women’s employment in Bihar.
Bihar, despite being one of India’s fastest-growing states, has the lowest female labour force participation rate, alongside a widening gender gap. Policy focus on girls’ education, skills, entrepreneurship, and social support through schemes such as the Balika Cycle Yojana, Akshar Anchal Yojana, and Kanya Suraksha Yojana have contributed to recent improvements in female participation. Using PLFS data, this factsheet examines trends and key characteristics of women’s employment in Bihar.
Factsheet
Trends in Female Labour Force Participation in Uttar Pradesh
- April , 2025
- Aneek Choudhary and Bidisha Mondal
Uttar Pradesh, India’s most populous state, has a large working-age female population but a female labor force participation rate that is well below the national average. Regional disparities, weak infrastructure in eastern UP, restrictive socio-cultural norms, and limited economic opportunities contribute to low participation. Female workforce participation has improved since 2017–18, supported by schemes such as the Mudra Yojana and Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana, which have expanded women’s access to credit, strengthened self-help groups, and promoted women’s economic empowerment across the state.
Uttar Pradesh, India’s most populous state, has a large working-age female population but a female labor force participation rate that is well below the national average. Regional disparities, weak infrastructure in eastern UP, restrictive socio-cultural norms, and limited economic opportunities contribute to low participation. Female workforce participation has improved since 2017–18, supported by schemes such as the Mudra Yojana and Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana, which have expanded women’s access to credit, strengthened self-help groups, and promoted women’s economic empowerment across the state.
Factsheet
Trends in Female Labour Force and Workforce Participation- Haryana
- April , 2025
- Vidhi, Aneek Choudhary and Bidisha Mondal
Haryana has transitioned from an agrarian to a more industrial economy, characterized by strong agricultural output and growing sectors such as automotive and IT. Despite economic growth, unemployment remains high, particularly among youth and women, due to limited formal job opportunities and structural challenges. This factsheet analyses female labour force participation in Haryana from 2017–18 to 2023–24, highlighting sectoral trends, occupational segregation, and barriers to workforce entry.
Haryana has transitioned from an agrarian to a more industrial economy, characterized by strong agricultural output and growing sectors such as automotive and IT. Despite economic growth, unemployment remains high, particularly among youth and women, due to limited formal job opportunities and structural challenges. This factsheet analyses female labour force participation in Haryana from 2017–18 to 2023–24, highlighting sectoral trends, occupational segregation, and barriers to workforce entry.
Haryana has transitioned from an agrarian to a more industrial economy, characterized by strong agricultural output and growing sectors such as automotive and IT. Despite economic growth, unemployment remains high, particularly among youth and women, due to limited formal job opportunities and structural challenges. This factsheet analyses female labour force participation in Haryana from 2017–18 to 2023–24, highlighting sectoral trends, occupational segregation, and barriers to workforce entry.