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Women’s Workforce Participation In India: Statewise Trends

Women’s labourforce participation rates (LFPR) reveals some interesting trends for Maharashtra. As per the figures from the labourforce surveys, the LFPR is significantly higher than the all-India figures, largely driven by higher than average rural employment. The state also shares a decline in self-employment and casual employment and a shift towards regular wage work for both rural and urban women. In Maharashtra the urban areas witnessed a consistent rise in regular wage work of women since 2004-05. More than 60 percent of women are employed as regular workers – 70 percent of which is concentrated in the services sector such as education, health and retail. In rural areas, the share of casual workers is considerably higher at around 42 percent, followed by 52 percent in self-employment. The incidence of unpaid family workers among self-employed women exceed 80 percent. While the urban areas show considerable diversity of women workers across occupations and sectors, women in the rural areas remain concentrated as manual workers in agriculture or within construction work.

Digital Solutions to Unlock the Potential of SHGs and their Federations

Digital tools hold the promise of accelerating women’s empowerment, enhancing the effectiveness and efficacy of existing initiatives, providing new tools to improve knowledge, and creating new opportunities for women to connect and share information.  Most of these initiatives revolve around Self Help Groups (SHGs) and federations, which are social support groups known for empowering women through social mobilisation and financial inclusion. To understand the varied digitization initiatives within the SHG ecosystem in India, IWWAGE undertook a detailed landscape assessment of such initiatives. The study, undertaken in 2018, covered various state chapters of NRLM and SHPAs across states like Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu, to understand the level of digitisation undertaken in each. This brief discusses the observations and findings from the study for Chhattisgarh, and identifies challenges and potential opportunities to implement digital solutions to support SHGs.

 

Accelerating Women’s Access to Entitlements through Digital Solutions

Digital innovation presents exciting opportunities for women who are part of collectives or Self Help Groups (SHGs). Technology can be used to link women within SHGs to each other and other existing l networks, and layer other services and use cases to promote their social and economic empowerment.  More specifically, SHGs can use digital platforms to request and receive information and services, so as to enable their members access these services. Moreover, innovative digital solutions can address mobility, cost and literacy barriers and significantly increase the penetration of these benefits. Haqdarshak is an innovative mobile application developed by Haqdarshak Empowerment Solutions Private Ltd (HESPL), in collaboration with Save the Children and Nokia.  The app provides a ready reference of more than 200 central and state government welfare schemes and programmes, and the benefits promised, eligibility criteria, documents required, and application process for each. The brief brings a snapshot of the model.

 

IWWAGE- ISST Briefs

The series of research brief presented below identifies the barriers to women’s labourforce participation and highlights each issue in a separate brief based on available evidence. This is a collaborative series between IWWAGE and ISST.  The briefs have been prepared by IWWAGE and ISST team members and reviewed by an internal team comprising of Ratna Sudarshan, Aasha Kapur Mehta, Sona Mitra and Soumya Kapoor Mehta.

Mobility and Safety of Women: Interlinkages with Labour Force Participation

One of the major factors limiting the participation of women in the labour force is concern for their safety. These include fear of sexual violence in streets, in and around public transportation, schools, workplaces and other public and private spaces. This reality decreases women’s and girls’ freedom of mobility by impacting their ability to participate in school, work and public life; access to essential services; and enjoyment of cultural and recreational opportunities. In particular, ensuring a safe city and a safe workplace by investing in safe and affordable modes of public transportation, infrastructural additions to make cities more accessible for women, and inclusive legal provisions for safety at work can be important enablers of female LFPR. This policy brief attempts to describe the issues underpinning women’s safety as a barrier to their participation in the labour force; and shares recommendations to ensure that safety does not act as a barrier to mobility and the ability to access services that might improve life prospects and opportunities for women and girls.

Women’s Entrepreneurship in India: Harnessing the Gender Dividend

India’s economic growth story has eluded a large section of the micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs)—in fact the smallest of the enterprises led by women. This is evident in the fact that, despite the growing number of MSMEs in India, as of 2018–19, only one in every five enterprises was owned by women (21.5 per cent). Not only is women’s representation across sectors low, the growth of existing enterprises also seems to have stagnated over time. This brief seeks to highlight the key challenges to women’s entrepreneurship in India, including social norms and biases, lack of education, unequal opportunities for affordable financing, and limited networking opportunities which prevent them from exploring their full entrepreneurial potential. It also seeks to document some of the key recommendations to address these social, economic and technological constraints.

Financial Inclusion and Female Labour Force Participation

The rapid growth in India over the past decade has been coupled with a steady decline in female labour force participation. Despite rising GDPs, improvements in higher education attainment as well as fall in fertility rates, India’s female labour force participation rate (LFPR) has continued to drop. This has been further aggravated by job stagnation and high unemployment rates in recent years which have impacted women disproportionately and may worsen due to the ongoing pandemic. In India, existing societal norms, low literacy levels as well as lack of access to fixed assets further excludes women from the formal financial structure, thereby hampering their socio-economic growth. The brief analyses the barriers faced by women while accessing financial services and products, the lack of gender- specific policies, discrimination towards women entrepreneurs and geographic distance to financial institutions. Attempt is also made to look at policy interventions, and schemes designed to address some of the supply side barriers.

Barriers for Women in Public Employment

Despite high economic growth and improved health and economic outcomes since the 1990s, female labour force participation (FLFP) has stagnated or declined in India, falling to 17.5 per cent in 2017–18 according to the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS). For working women, the public sector is the largest provider of formal or regular salaried jobs in the Indian economy. Given stagnating FLFP according to official data, the severe impacts of COVID-19 on unemployment, and the necessity to boost economic growth and recovery, removing barriers to women’s opportunities in public employment is more important than ever. The brief looks at the role of women’s public employment prospects in not only creating needed jobs, but delivering indirect benefits such as improved public service delivery, greater social protection for women, and boosts to consumption from increased household incomes. Addressing them will help guarantee the right to safe working conditions, adequate compensation, and deserved social protections that will benefit women workers and the economy at large.

Women in the Indian Informal Economy

Globally, two billion of population aged 15 years and above works in the informal economy, representing 61.2 per cent of world employment. Informal employment is a greater source of employment for men (63 per cent) than women (58.1 per cent). In India, although the absolute numbers are lower, a slightly higher percentage of women workers are in informal employment as compared to men. In India, women are almost always involved in some kind of productive and/or reproductive activity, but much of their work is invisible, and they are largely employed in low skilled, low paid informal work with little or no social security, with a consolidation of caste or religion-based disadvantages, even within a larger context of women’s marginalisation. Within this informal workforce with its persistent gender-based occupational segregation, the COVID-19 pandemic is intensifying pre-existing inequalities, exposing vulnerabilities across every sphere, from health to the economy, security to social protection. The brief analyses gender dimension of informality, its implications and captures the gendered experiences of informal workers during the lockdown and the post-lockdown period.

Women and Unpaid Work

Women’s workforce participation rates (WPR) in India, as measured by the National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO), have been low and consistently declining over the last 15 years or so. An important part of the reason for this is women’s unpaid and unaccounted work. Time is spent on activities which remain excluded from the radar of large sample surveys on employment. Feminist scholars have been arguing for recognition, reduction and redistribution of unpaid activities to be able to move towards gender equality. With the transformation of the household into the site of work and livelihood due to the COVID- 19 pandemic, power relations are seen manifesting both within and outside the household, forcing women to spend hours in backbreaking work, often not even recognised as work in surveys or discourses. The brief assesses the impact of the pandemic and the consequent lockdown on women workers in informal sectors and shares recommendations to recognise and redistribute unpaid work.

Opportunities for Transformative Financing for Women and Girls

This paper draws on a pre-budget consultation hosted by IWWAGE and The Quantum Hub (TQH) on 1 October 2020, ‘Transformative financing for Gender Equality in a COVID-19 context’ to inform the Union Budget 2021-22. The aim of the consultation was to identify and amplify the needs of millions of women and girls whose lives have been disrupted and severely affected because of the pandemic, but also account for the disadvantages and inequities that existed even before COVID-19. IWWAGE invited experts1 from academia, civil society, NGOs, and donor bodies, who have been actively advocating for transformative financing for gender equality in India. These experts shared their insights from current and past experiences to shape an actionable agenda to improve the lives of women and girls in the current context. IWWAGE, like some of the experts invited for the consultation, is part of the Broad-Based Committee on Gender Budgeting and Analysis that has been set up by the Ministry for Women and Child Development (MWCD). We used this opportunity to provide suggestions to support the gender responsive budgeting efforts of MWCD and that of other relevant ministries, and also shared these with the Ministry of Finance in response to their request for ideas for Union Budget 2021-22. We also aim to share insights from this consultation among key decision makers, relevant line ministries and departments, and to a wider audience engaged in shaping the agenda on advancing gender equality and women’s economic empowerment in India. This paper has been jointly developed by The Quantum Hub (TQH) and IWWAGE.

Women and Work: How India fared in 2020

Women and girls across the world have been disproportionately affected in the year of the pandemic, not in terms of impact of the virus, but more so socially and economically.  While India was rapidly responding to the health crisis, millions of Indians were grappling with the unintended impacts of lockdown measures on the economy and their livelihoods. Even before the onset of COVID-19, India’s female workforce was largely invisible, underpaid, under-protected and constituted largest segment of the informal workforce, which is among the worst-hit this year. But several opportunities exist in 2021 to ensure that India’s women are not left behind in its recovery plans.

Against this backdrop, IWWAGE and The Quantum Hub (TQH) authored a report that draws from various studies, data sources and nationally-representative data sets to look at the key trends and policy developments that came to shape and define the lives of women across India in 2020. This report captures key data on economic and social indicators (like female labour force participation, barriers to work and livelihoods, financial inclusion, digital access, skilling, education and violence against women) that played a central role in determining women’s role in the Indian economy this year.

Generating Female Employment through Public Employment: A Scoping Paper

The employment generating potential of growth in India has been on the decline with unemployment and the lack of new job opportunities at their peak. According to the data put together by the State of Working India 2018, the relationship between growth and employment generation in India has weakened over time. A related puzzle is that of declining female workforce participation rates in the country, despite increasing education levels as well as economic growth. A major concern for the direction and pace of economic growth is how work and labour force participation rates of women can be improved. Employment in the government, especially in public services delivery, is a potential area where jobs can be created. An emphasis on creating work opportunities for women in public administration and frontline public services can serve the dual purpose of providing universal access to quality public services and reviving demand in the economy.

IWWAGE study, Generating Female Employment through Public Employment aims to estimate the impact of creating and regularising jobs for women within the system of public administration, especially in frontline public services delivery. It considers questions on the activities and working conditions of women workers in frontline public services, assesses the number of such workers, and compares them with international estimates. The study also evaluates whether there is gender stereotyping in certain public sector jobs. Additionally, the study captures women’s perceptions of the benefits and constraints of being employed in such jobs. This scoping paper presents the current status of women employed in various levels by the government, based on data from the National Sample Survey (NSS), analysis of government reports, publications, and responses to queries raised using the Right to Information (RTI).

 

 

Identifying Gaps in Gender Statistics In India

Women are key agents of change, and a move towards gender equality translates into increased economic empowerment for women; it also brings greater benefits for the society at large. As pointed out by McKinsey Global Institute, the economic impact of achieving gender equality in India is estimated to be US$700 billion of added Gross Domestic Product (GDP) by 2025. But achieving gender equality necessitates measures to correct for existing disadvantages that prevent women from accessing productive opportunities. Gender data play an important role in this regard.

This study is an attempt to outline the existing gaps in available official data sources in India. The study has identified data gaps in key domains of women’s empowerment, namely, employment and wages, ownership of assets, access to basic amenities, financial inclusion, health, education, access to digital platforms, participation in decision making, and crime and violence, etc. The study highlights the need for more regular surveys on employment and wages, and time use surveys to better capture women’s paid and unpaid work, and also time spent on different unpaid activities. A multi-causal approach to data collection on migration, on earnings of the self-employed as well as on ownership and management of assets and businesses, at the individual level, is also recommended. Besides, a cohort study of young women, behavioural aspects, norms and opinions around women’s work, as well as data on mental health, learning outcomes, violence and individual access to digital resources, would provide a range of measures to investigate the issue of women’s empowerment.

 

Note on IWWAGE Findings

IWWAGE promotes, synthesises and generates evidence on ‘What Works’ for women’s economic empowerment in India. The initiative focuses on moving from ‘How’ to ‘What Works’ to improve women’s participation in economic activities through access to decent work and economic resources, strengthen social protection networks, and facilitate gender transformative policies. To take the agenda of evidence generation forward, in the last one year, three studies have been undertaken by IWWAGE in India. This document summarises the findings from the three studies and lists the key policy concerns and recommendations that emerge across each of them. These include:

  1. Study on Centre based Child Care as a solution for Maternal Employment and Early Childhood Development: Recognising the complex and synergetic relationship between access to childcare facilities and women’s economic empowerment, a secondary review of global practices was undertaken to put together evidence on how accessible, affordable and quality center-based childcare can support women by reducing and redistributing the unpaid care work, and how it impacts maternal employment as well as early childhood development for children under 6 years
  2. Study on SHG digitisation: The study highlights that the majority of focus has been on MIS digitisation, followed by monitoring of SHGs. Linking of facilitators and group members to digital tools is in early stages of piloting and digitisation of livelihoods data is a distant goal.
  3. A rapid assessment of 181 Helpline scheme: IWWAGE was commissioned by the Ministry of Women and Child Development to undertake a rapid assessment of the implementation of the helpline scheme across different states in the country. The study was carried out across 11 states and aimed to understand the current status of implementation of the scheme along – i. Functionality of the 181 helpline; ii. State level MIS/databases; iii. Responsiveness of Centre staff, and iv. Integration between 181 Women’s helpline (WHL) and One Stop Centre (OSC).
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